
Glass \«Xl /\s 

Book W3 - 



f A3 




^ 



THE APPLE INDUSTRY 



OF 



Wayne and of Orleans Counties, 
New York 



A THESIS 

SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF CORNELL UNI- 
VERSITY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 



BY 

F. WARREN 



ITHACA, NEW YORK 
I905 



c$> ^ 



MAR 2a I <#08 



> 



^ 



Acknowledgments are due to the one thousand or more farmers 
without whose cooperation the work could not have been done ; 
to Professor John Craig, at whose suggestion I undertook the 
work, for man}- helpful suggestions and for reading the manu- 
script and proof ; to Director Iy. H. Bailey for man}- valuable 
suggestions and for reading the proof ; to Mr. Christian Bues, 
who was my co-worker in the field work in Orleans County, 
and who read the manuscript of Part I ; to Mr. Cornelius Betten 
for reading the manuscript ; and to Professor Bousteel and Mr. 
Whetzel for reading parts of the proof. 

Figures 44, 48, 75, 78, 79, 82, 92 and the figures in Part II 
were furnished byth'e' Department of Horticulture. Figure 85 
was furnished by ProfessoV^Sfrrigerlaud. 



PART L 



THE APPLE INDUSTRY OF WAYNE COUNTY, 

NEW YORK. 



G. F. WARREN. 



$ 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

INTRODUCTION 241-247 

The field work 24 r 

The degree of accuracy of the reports 244 

Method of making computations 245 

Work in Orleans county «, 240 

General observations on the work 24O 

CHAPTER I. 

The Magnitude of the Apple I ndustry 249-259 

Fruit production per capita 249 

Magnitude of the apple crop 250 

Production of evaporated apples 25 [ 

Value of orchard products of the various states 25^ 

Exports of apples, 1851-1904 255 

Area devoted to apples in Wayne county 256 

Development of the commercial orchard 257 

CHAPTER II. 

Tillage 261-272 

Acreage of tilled and untitled orchards 261 

Yiekis of tilled and untilled orchards 262 

Does tillage pay ? 264 

Results of treatment not immediately apparent 267 

Methods of tillage 269 

Methods of sod treatment 269 

CHAPTER III. 

Fertilization 273-277 

Fertilizers used 273 

Fertilization and yield 274 

Necessity of fertilization 274 

Relative amounts of plant-food removed by the apple crop and by the 

wheat crop 274 

Manure shipped in from cities 276 

Manure secured by feeding cattle 276 

Method of applying manure 277 

Cover-crops 277 

237 



238 Bulletin 226. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Page. 

Pruning 278-288 

Former methods of pruning 278 

1 low wounds heal 27^, 

Removal of large limbs 279 

'" Stub " pruning 280 

Use of paint on wounds 283 

Thinning the tops 284 

Pruning should vary with the thrift of the trees 28; 

The best time to prune 285 

1 low to treat crotches 286 

Number of scaffold limbs 2S7 

CHAPTER V. 

Spraying 289-294 

The extent of the practice 289 

Relation of spraying to yields and prices 289 

Kinds of sprays used 290 

The hest time to spray 292 

Winter treatment for apple-scab 203 

Method of applying the spray 293 

Russeting of the fruit 293 

Damage to foliage from spraying 294 

CHAPTER VI. 
Renovating ax Apple Orchard ix Western New York. By Christian 
Bites 295-298 

CHAPTER VII. 

Number of Trees per Acre and Distance Between Trees 299-307 

Number of trees per acre 299 

Trees planted too closely 200 

Effects of close planting on yields and health 300 

Top-grafting or pruning every other row 305 

I low to thin 305 

CHAPTER VI 11. 

Ace of the Orchards 308-312 

Date of planting 308 

Yields at different ages 3°8 

Planting young orchards 3i° 

CHAPTER IX. 

Soils and Soil Problems 313-324 

Topography — Topographical regions 313 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 239 

Page. 

Soils — The soil typo 315 

Miami stony loam 316 

Alton stony loam 316 

Miami silt loam 317 

Miami line sand 317 

Ontario gravelly loam 317 

Relation of the soil to yield of apples 317 

Summary of the soil factor 318 

Drainage — The natural drainage 319 

Losses caused by lack of drainage 3_'o 

CHAPTER X. 

Elevations and Exposures 325-326 

Sites 325 

Relation of the sites and yields 325 

Aspects, or exposures 325 

Relation of the aspects and yields 326 

CHAPTER XI. 

A Comparison of Rented Orchards with Those Managed p,v the Owner, 327-329 

Census of rented orchards 327 

Effects of the rental system on the orchards yij 

Suggestions and reflections on the rented farm 329 

CHAPTER XTT. 

Varieties 330-332 

The varieties grown 330 

Variations within the variety — the selection of scions 330 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Enemies oe the Apple 333-348 

List of the more serious enemies yj>i 

The Apple- Scab Fungus — Its importance 335 

What is the scab fungus ? 335 

Relation of the weather to the development of scab t>?>7 

Relative damage on different varieties of apples 338 

Relation to other fungi 338 

Treatment 339 

Leaf Spot — Caused by the scab fungus 339 

Other causes of leaf spot 340 

Leaf-blister mite 340 



240 Bulletin 226. 

Page. 

The Apple-Tree Canker — Description 341 

The extent of the injury by canker 341 

The cause of the cankers 344 

Treatment 344 

Collar Rot — Occurrence and description 345 

The cause of the rot 346 

Treatment 346 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Yields, Markets and Prices 349 _ 355 

Total yields in Wayne county 349 

Average yields per acre / 349 

Average yields per tree 349 

Variations in yield 350 

The evaporating industry 350 

How the crop is disposed of 351 

General considerations concerning marketing 353 

Average prices 354 

Average income per acre 354 

SUMMARY 356 

CONCLUSION 360 

REFERENCES 361 



INTRODUCTION. 



GENERAL METHOD OF WORK. 

The field work. — The field work was done between June 10 and Sep- 
tember 12, 1903. Nearly all of this time was spent in the apple orchards. 
In Walworth township. 







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which is in the center 
of the west part of the 
county, every orchard as 
large as one acre was ex- 
amined. In nearly even- 
case the owner was inter- 
viewed for statistics on 
variety, age, fertilization, 
tillage, spraying, past 
troubles, yields, market, 
price, etc. The orchard 
was examined in order to 
determine the site, aspect, 
area, distance between 
trees, present treatment, 
present condition of health 

and crop, pruning, diseases, insects, etc. A three-foot soil auger was 
a part of the outfit, and frequent borings were made to determine the 
physical condition of the soil, texture, structure and the drainage con- 
ditions. Samples for laboratory analyses were taken of the different 
soil types. In short, an effort was made to study whatever factors 
enter into the successful production of apples. All the information 
obtained was entered in the blank report provided for that purpose (see 
Fig. 38). These reports are preserved in the Department of Horticulture 
for reference for the future worker and are, of course, not open to the 
public. The position and approximate size of each orchard with its 
number is shown on the map prepared by the United States Geological 

241 



Fig. 37. — Map showing the location of Wayne and 
Orleans counties, New York. 



242 



Bulletin 226. 






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An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 243 

Survey. These maps show the 20-foot contour lines on a scale of one 
inch to a mile (see Fig. 39). This method of locating" the orchard makes 
it possible to look it up at any time in the future. Very many other 
items were determined, some of which were entered under " general 










X & H 



Fig. 39. — A reduced photograph of the field map of Walworth township, showing the 

position and number of the orchards. This map was on a scale of four inches to the 
mile. 



observations," and some of which were recorded in a note-book kept 
for that purpose. 

In Ontario township, which lies between the lake and Walworth, 
every orchard as large as ten acres and a number of smaller ones were 
likewise examined. Nearly all the other orchards were seen, and a 
comparison made with those that were carefully recorded. 



244 Bulletin 226. 

In Macedon township, which extends from Walworth to the 
southern boundary of the county, every orchard as large as ten acres 
and nearly all of those as large as five acres were examined. Practically 
all the other orchards of this town were examined sufficiently to be able 
to make comparisons with those recorded. 

These three townships gave a representative north and south section 
of the county. The differences in going north and south are very 
much greater than those from east to west. 

The degree of accuracy of the reports. — The results are based on all 
the orchards of Walworth as large as one acre, or 443 orchards con- 
taining 1,773^ acres ; and on 131 orchards of the remainder of the county 
containing 1,987^ acres. This is between one-fifth and one-sixth of the 
orchards of the county. Probably at least one-third of the orchards were 
examined more or less carefully. The careful records were made of the 
above number. 

The location, site, aspect, area, distance between trees, present treat- 
ment, pruning, present condition, present troubles, soil and soil condi- 
tions were determined by the observer, aided by any suggestions that the 
owner might give. 

The ages are a question of memory and sometimes of hearsay. The 
appearance of the trees would usually enable the inspector to avoid 
any large error. The past troubles except canker-worm, tent cater- 
pillar and scab or " fungus " are not often given, as they are not 
recognized by many growers. This does not by any means indicate 
that no other important enemies have been present. Some have left 
their effects so apparent that the observer could, without difficulty, 
fill in the past troubles. The varieties, methods of former treatment, 
spraying, fertilization, etc., are fairly accurate, except that the amount 
of fertilization is not often known. The market and price per bushel 
are quite accurate. The farmers are practically all glad to be able to 
help in the work of the Experiment Station. They understand that 
the reports are confidential, and therefore have no incentive to give 
too high yields. The only' limit to the accuracy is the memory of the 
grower. The apple crop is, however, the chief crop and is therefore well 
remembered. The yields are usually the result of measurement, as 
the people remember the number of bushels, or the number of pounds, 
or remember the income and price, from which the yield can be 
computed. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 245 

The yields for 1903 were secured by letters to the growers. They 
doubtless average too high, for those who had a very small crop some- 
times considered it too small to he worth reporting. 

The records of the [0,02 yields arc the most complete and the most 
accurate of all. 

Method of making the computations. — Since every orchard in Wal- 
worth was examined, all computations have been made for this town 
hy itself, and separate ones made for the south and for the north parts 
of the county. In some cases Ontario and Macedon townships were 
each considered separately. Nearly all these computations when 
yields are concerned are made for the crops of 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903. 
ddie conclusions have almost invariably been the same for each year 
and for each part of the county. In this bulletin they have, in most cases, 
been summarized under two heads, Walworth and the remainder of the 
county. 

In computing yields under various methods of treatment, the yields 
of the orchards set before 1880 are ordinarily used. Trees set since 
that date have mostly not arrived at maturity. 

In computing any one item the others have generally been ignored. 
The justification for this lies in the fact that so many orchards have 
been examined that other items will balance. For example, in deter- 
mining the average yields for orchards having trees set at different 
distances apart, no attention has been given to the care of the orchard. 
There are orchards set at all distances that have been well cared for 
and others that are neglected. The large number examined makes 
an average of conditions. The danger of this method of making calcu- 
lations lies in possible coordinate factors. The man who tills his 
orchard may be the man who sprays. Some points of this kind are 
discussed under the different chapters. To test the method, some compu- 
tations have been made on the basis of sub-groups of orchards otherwise 
similarly treated. The results have sometimes been changed in absolute 
amounts, but have been unchanged in their relation to each other, or have 
been so slightly changed as not to alter the conclusions to which diey 
point. 

The independent calculations for Walworth township and for the 
north and the south parts of the county, furnish additional checks. 
There are usually twelve independent calculations — one for each of 
these divisions for each of the four years. WHien these results all 



2 4-6 Bulletin 226. 

point to the same conclusion, they would seem to establish it beyond 
any reasonable doubt. In this report the results are frequently sum- 
marized in order to save space. There might seem to be some danger 
of a large orchard controlling the average, but in no case of any 
importance has such an orchard changed the relative order of the 
results. 

In making most of the computations, there were orchards for which 
the information or yields were not secured. These were, of course, 
omitted, just as an orchard that was not seen. The computations 
always include every orchard for which the particular data were 
secured. 

// ork in Orleans county. — During the summer of 1904, orchards to 
the number of 564, including 4,881 acres, were similarly examined in 
Orleans county. In this county the writer was assisted by Mr. C. Bues. 
Some of the pictures in this report were obtained in that county. Many 
references are also made to it, but all the tabulations are from Wayne 
county. The tables for the Orleans county work will be published later. 
General observations on the work. — The method of doing the work and 
the kind of information sought were much changed during the progress 
of the investigation. In the beginning the type of soil was thought to be 
of much more importance than it really is. The most important points 
were not considered in the first few reports. The relative importance of 
the different problems was better seen as the work progressed. The 
report blank ( Fig. 38 ) is very different from the first one used. Many 
improvements were made when similar work was started in Orleans 
county, but there are others that will be made if another count}' is studied. 
The succeeding pages may be said to be results of experiments of the 
past seventy-five years in apple-growing in Wayne county. " Every farm 
is an experiment station and every farmer the director thereof." But 
when these experiments are viewed singly, there are so many factors that 
the success or failure is as likely to be assigned to a wrong cause as to 
the right one. As a result we have the great diversity of opinion that 
exists among apple-growers. It is by studying and tabulating results 
from large numbers of orchards that important and unimportant factors 
can be properly correlated. 

The standards in this bulletin are not ideals, but are in all cases based 
on what successful men are doing. No one man is following all of them, 
but each one has been tried. It is impossible to give credit to each 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 247 

farmer who has aided in the work, for that would mean to enumerate 
six hundred in Wayne county and an equal number in Orleans county, 
hut 1 can not refrain from mentioning' the willingness with which nearly 
every one gave the information about his orchard and about his successes 
and failures. It would be very hard to find a region where the farmers 
are more willing to cooperate with every enterprise of the experiment 
stations. In writing this bulletin. I have tried to keep in mind the many 
questions asked by the farmers, as well as to present the tables of the 
results of various methods of treatment. 



248 



Bulletin 226. 




Making apple barrels. 




Hauling the barrels to the orchard. 



CHAPTER I. 
The Magnitude of the Apple Industry. 

Fruit production per capita. — The commercial demand in the United 
States for fresh fruit has been created during the past fifty years. The 
small quantity of fruit that was produced half a century ago was 
largely used for wine and cider manufacture, but fresh fruit and canned 
fruit are now among the staple articles of diet for the laborer as well 
as for the wealthy. Table i shows that the value of the orchard 
products on the farm has increased from 33 cents per capita in 1850. 
to $1.11 per capita in 1900. If all fruits are included the value would 
he about fifty per cent greater, the amount for 1900 being $1.74 per 
capita (see Table 2). Much more than these amounts must be spent 

Table i. 

Relative increase of population and of value of orchard products from the census 

reports. 



Population. 



185O 1 23, 191,876 

i860 31,443,321 

1870 38,558,371 

1880 50,155,783 



19OO 75,568,686 



Per cent of 
gain in 10 years. 



35-6 
21.3 

32.4 

Gain in 20 yrs. 

52.1 



Value of 
Orchard 

Products. 



$7,723,186 
19,991,885 
38, OOO, ooo 3 

50,876,154 



83,751,840 



Per cent of 
gain in 10 years. 



159.O 
90.0 

33-9 

Gain in 20 yrs. 

64.6 



'Values of orchar. -^duets are for the year preceding the census. 

= The value of orchai .1 products was not given for 1890. 

"' In 1870 the value of orchard products returned was $47,335,189. The reduction 
of this amount by the then existing premium on gold (25.3 per cent on the average 
for the twelve months of the census year. May 31. r869, to June 1, 1870) would 
yield about $38,000,000." Tenth Census, Statistics of Agriculture, page xxii. 



249 



250 



Bulletin 226. 



by the consumer for the transportation, commissions and profits in- 
crease the cost several times. A larger proportion of the crop may 
now be exported, hut the great change has been in the creation of 
a home demand for fresh fruit, such as does not exist in any other 
country. The great fruit market of the world is the American work- 
man, and his staple fruit is the apple. 

The magnitude of the apple crop. — Of the total number of orchard trees 
reported in 1900, 55 per cent were apple, and these produced 83 per 

Table 2. 

Relative rank in fruit production of the ten leading fruit-producing slates, from the 

census of iqoo. 



Orch\kd Products. 



Total value. Percent. Rank. Total value 



United States 
California. . . . 
New York. . . 
Pennsylvania 

Ohio 

Illinois 

Michigan.. . . 

Indiana 

Missouri 

Virginia 

New Jersey. . 



751,840 
526, 786 
542, 272 
976. 464 
141, 118 
778,811 

675, 845 
3, 166, 338 
•2,944,175 
2, 662, 483 
2. 594. 981 



"4- 
10, 

7, 

6. 

3, 



100 

17 
12 

9 

7 
4 
4 

3 
3 
3 



All Fruits. 



$I 3 I. 
28. 
15, 
9, 
8, 
5, 
5- 
4, 
4- 
3. 



423,517 
280, 104 

844. 346 
884, 809 
901,220 
455,213 
859, 362 
630, 169 
309,813 
5C5,475 
082. 788 



Per cent. Rank. 



100. 

21-5 
12. I 

7-5 
6.8 

4-i 
4-5 

3-5 
3-3 
2-7 

3-; 



1 
2 

3 
4 

6 
5 
7 
8 
10 
9 



Leading fruit enmities in New York. 



Orchard Products. 



Total value. 



Niagara 
Orleans 
Monroe 

Wayne 

Ontario 
Dutchess . . . 

Ulster 

Westchester 
Columbia. . . 
Chautauqua. 



Per cent 

I of the 
N. V. 
crop. 



Rank. 



078. 042 


10 


8.39, 722 


8 


768, 927 


7 


584, 254 


5 


497, 354 


4 


377,427 


3 


354, 262 


3 


306. 010 


2 


300. 645 


2 


296, 679 


2 . 






2 


3 


3 


5 


4 


7 
6 


5 
6 


4 
9 


7 
8 


9 

8 


9 
10 



All Fruits. 





Per cent 




of the 


otal value. 


N. Y. 




crop. 


1,184,482 


7-5 


875,270 


5 


5 


928, 673 


5 


9 


903, 875 


5 


7 


730, 222 


4 


b 1 


429, 679 


? 


7 


989, 024 


1 


2 


329,419 


2 


1 


434, 660 


2 


7 


I , 620, 923 


10 


2 



Rank. 



6 

4 

5 

7 

10 

3 
15 
9 

i 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 251 



cent of the total number of bushels of fruit reported. The average 
production of apples is about two to three bushels per capita. 

Of the crop of 175,000,000 bushels in 1899, the States of New York, 
P<nnsylvania and Ohio produced nearly 69,000,000 bushels, or over 
39 per cent of the total crop in the United States (see Table 3). New 
York justly claims first place in the quantity and quality of her apple 
crop. Apples are grown in nearly all parts of the State, but it is in 
the lake counties, Niagara, Orleans, Monroe and Wayne that the 
industry has been most extensively developed. In 1900, fifteen states 
outside of New York had a greater number of apple-trees than the 
combined number in these four counties, but only nine of these states 
gave a larger crop in 1899. No other county in the United States pro- 
duced as many apples as any one of these. Only four counties : one 
in Illinois, one in .Missouri and two in Arkansas had as many trees as 
any one of these. 

The production of evaporated apples. — Wayne county has come to 
market the great bulk of its apple crop as evaporated apples. The 
other counties sell nearlv all their crop in barrels. According to the 
last census (see Table 4), Wayne county produces over two-thirds of 
the evaporated fruit in New York, and produces an amount exceeded 
by only three states. Two of these, Oregon and North Carolina, only 
slightly exceed Wayne county. This report includes all kinds of 
evaporated fruit. ( )f evaporated apples, AYayne county doubtless pro- 
duces more than any State in the Union, except, of course, New York 
(see Table 41). 

Table 3. 
Number of apple-trees and yield of apfles, from the census of 1890 and of igoo. 





Census of 1890. 


Census of 1900. 




No. bearing 
trees 1890. 


Bushels of 

apples for the 

year 1889. 


c 

Pi 


No. trees of 

bearing age 

1900. 


Bushels of 

apples for year 

1899. 


C 
Pi 


United States .... 

New York 

Pennsylvania .... 

Ohio 

Virginia 

Illinois 


120,152,795 
14.428,381 
9, 097, 700 
10,860,613 
4,253,364 
6, 949. 336 
8, 582, 386 
6, 089, 106 
2,870,535 
8, 150,442 
5, 730, 144 


143,105,689 

8,493,846 

7,552,710 

13,789,278 

8,39L425 
9, 600, 785 

13, 154.626 
8, 784, 038 
4.439,978 
8, 698, 1 70 

10,679,389 


7 

10 
1 
8 

4 


201, 794, 764 
15,054,832 
II, 774, 211 
12,952,625 

8, 190,025 

13,430,006 

10,927,899 

8.6?!. ZQ2 


175,397.626 

24,111,257 

24,060,651 

20,617,480 

9,835,982 

9,178,150 

8,931,569 

8, 620, 278 

7,495,743 
6, 496, 436 
6,053,717 


I 
2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 


Michigan 

Indiana 


West Virginia. . . . 
Missouri 


13 5,441,112 
6 | 20, 040, 399 
3 1 8,757,238 



252 



Bulletin 226. 



Table 3 — Concluded. 
Leading Counties in New York. 



Monroe . . 
Niagara. . . . 
Wayne .... 
Orleans .... 
Dutchess. . . 
Westchester 

Ontario 

Ulster 

Chautauqua . 
Cattaraugus 
Erie 



No. bearing 
trees iSqo. 



758, 729 
.033,454 
659, 89O 
591,767 
288, 762 

364, 333 
425, 236 
251,329 
460, 1 1 1 
366, 536 
730, 458 



S Oh 1890. 






Bushels 


of 


M 


apples for the 


C 


year 1889. 


P< 


439 


682 


5 


623 


204 


2 


1,030 


38l 


1 


321, 


726 


7 


194, 


916 


13 


578, 679 


4 


591, 


073 


3 


190, 


038 


14 


175, 


704 


15 


32, 


999 


43 


65. 


212 


37 



Census of i^oo. 



No. trees of 
bearing age 

1900. 



789, 409 
924, 086 
796,610 
629, 401 
400,8ll 
336, 135 
419,483 

347, 497 
449,317 
434,319 
631,283 



Bushels of I m 

apples for year [5 

1899. 1 k 



1,436,391 
1,421, 796 

1,393,585 

1,391,630 

990, 244 

979,411 

933, 764 
901, 162 
825, 633 
718,201 
476,091 



1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 

15 



Table 4. 
Pounds of dried and evaporated fruit produced in 1899, from the census of 1900. 





Pounds of dried 
fruit. 


Per cent. 


Rank. 


United States 


144,804,638 

117,935,727 
3,658,610 
2, 8l8, 200 
2, 744, 450 
2,533,810 


100.0 

81.4 

2-5 
1.9 




California 


I 


New York 




Oregon 


3 

A 


North Carolina 


Tennessee 


1.8 c 









Counties in Nei^ York. 



Wayne. 
Ontario 
Yates. . 
Monroe 
Orleans 





Per cent 


nds of dried 


of the 


fruit. 


N. V. 




product. 


2,698,350 


73-8 


508, 300 


13-9 


105,820 


2.9 


87, 160 


2.4 


9,500 


0-3 



I 

2 

3 

4 

10 



An Apple Orchard Survey or Wayne County, New York. 253 



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An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York 255 



Table 6. 
Exports of Apples* 



1851 
1852 
1853 
1854 
1855 
1856 

1857 
1858 

1859 
i860 



Annual average 



1 861 
1862 
186} 
1864 
1865 
1866 
1867 



1870 



Annual average 



1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
i875 
1876 

1877 
1878 

1879 
1880 



Annual average. 



881 



885 



Fresh. 



Barrels. 



28, 842 
l8,4II 
45,075 
I5>326 
33-959 
74. 287 
33, 201 
27,7H 
32, 979 
78, 809 



Value. 



$71,367 

43,635 

107,283 

5 1 , 766 

107,643 

[43.884 

135,280 

74, 303 

99, 803 

206, 055 



38, 860 

112,523 

66, 767 

174,502 

183,969 

120,317 

51,612 

29-577 

19,874 

t 

38, 157 



^.589 



49- 

36, 

241, 

44, 
276, 

64, 
417, 
101, 

505 • 

407. 



508 
663 
928 
209 
472 
065 
617 
018 
911 



$104. 108 



£269, 
238, 
364, 
487, 
481, 
246. 
142. 

94, 

t 
230, 



363 
923 
628 
140 

334 
118 
023 

748 

013 



$283,810 



$136,693 
198, 948 
819.664 
204,312 
722, 247 
221. 764 
986, 1 12 
386, 261 

98o,455 
1. 190, 560 



214, 448 $584, 702 



1 . 1 1 7. 065 
176. 704 
313,921 
105. 400 
668, 867 

744, 539 
591,868 
489, 570 



$2,301,334 

539, 543 
1,085,230 

422, 447 
1,572. 126 
1,810,606 
1,382,872 
1.378,801 



Ave'ge 
price. 



$2 



$3 



$2 



68 



73 



Dried. 



Pounds. 



2.841.532 
892, O75 
55U350 
510.750 
775- 700 
t 

836, 1 10 



1,067.920 



I. 150, 122 
2.644.592 
4.483.186 
4- 234- 736 
4,053,696 
713,840 
I4.3i8.052 
4- 188, 173 

7, 379, 836 
3.158.367 



4.632.460 



Value. 



M46.05I 

105. 548 

55, 265 

79, 922 
121.910 

t 

79- 387 



5I14.0S1 



$79, 026 
190, 560 
272. 028 

294, 893 
3^6, 193 

67.9I5 
920, 292 
260. 085 
296, 794 
192, 069 



Average 
price. 



22,62^,652 
2,893,270 

10,187,957 
5- 558, 746 

18,416,573 

10,473,183 

8, 130,396 

II,803, l6l 



51,247.891 
228, 945 
786. 800 
394- 350 
I , 062, 859 
548, 434 
413,363 
812,682 



U.UO/ 

.118 

. 100 

.156 

• 157 

t 

• 095 



1. 107 



f . 069 
.072 
.061 
.070 

.080 
•095 

.064 
.062 
.040 
.061 



$289,986 $0,063 



)055 
.079 

.077 
.071 
.058 
.052 
:05I 
.069 



^Bulletin 64, and circular 16, Division of Foreign Markets. 
of Agriculture. 
t Record not kept. 



U. S. Department 



256 



Bulletin 226. 
Table 6 — Concluded. 



1S89 

1890 

Annual average. 

1891 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 

Annual average. 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 



Kkesh. 



Barrels. 



942, 406 

453- 506 



560. 385 



135.207 
938, 743 
408, 014 

78. 580 
818,711 

360. 002 

. 503. 981 
605, 390 

380, 222 
526, 636 



575-549 



883,673 

459, 719 
1,656, 129 
2.018,262 



Value. 



fo 249, 375 
1,231,436 



$1,397-377 



$476, 

2,407, 
1.097, 

242, 
1-954, 

930, 
2-371, 
1,684. 
1,210, 
1,444, 



897 
956 
967 
617 
318 
289 

143 

717 

459 
655 



Ave'ge 
price. 



'2.39 
2.72 



$2.49 



$1,382, 102 



$2, 058, 964 
1,628.886 
4,38l,80I 

5,446,473 



$2.40 



2.33 
3-54 
2.65 
2. 70 



Ukied. 



Pounds. 



22, 102, 579 
20,861,462 



13.305-098 



6,973,168 

26, 042, 063 

7,966,819 

2, 846, 645 

7,085,946 

26,691,963 

30.775,401 

31,031,254 

19, 305, 739 
34,964,010 



19,368.301 



28, 309, 023 
15,664,468 
39, 646, 297 
48,301,665 



Value. 



si, 201,070 
1,038.682 



$773,508 



$409, 605 

[, 288, 102 

482, 085 

168,054 

461, 214 

L340,507 

[.340,159 

[ , 897, 725 

[-245,733 

2,247,851 



Average 
price. 



$0,054 
.050 



058 



5. 104 



$I,5IO,58l 

1.190,593 
2.378.635 
2, 791,421 



059 
049 
061 

059 
065 
050 
044 
061 
065 
064 



056 



053 
076 
060 
058 



Areas- — There are in Walworth township 1,773 V\ ^cres of orchard 
made up of areas as large or larger than one acre. This township con- 
tains about 34.3/2 square miles. There are, therefore, 51 acres of apples 
per square mile ; or a little over 8 per cent of the land is devoted to 
orchards. In Ontario township there are about 40 acres per square mile, 
in Macedon about 19 acres. With the exception of Walworth and prob- 
ably Marion townships, it may be said that the area devoted to orchards 
increases as we approach the lake. 

The total area devoted to apples in the county is about 21,000 acres. 
The area of the county is 621 square miles. This gives 33.8 acres of 
apples per square mile, or 5.3 per cent. The census shows that there are 
305,299 acres of improved land in farms. The apple orchards equal 6.9 
per cent of this area. 

According to the census report for 1899, there were 796,610 " trees 
of bearing age " in the county. This survey shows the average num- 
ber per acre to be 41.8. This number of trees would therefore repre- 
sent an area of about 19,000 acres. Probably 2,000 acres were not of 
bearing age, or have been set since 1899. This would seem to support 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 257 

the above estimate, or perhaps the estimate substantiates the census 
returns, for this work should be much more accurate than the census. 

The average area for each proprietor in Walworth is 5.4 acres. This 
includes all orchards as large as one acre. In the remainder of the 
county such small orchards were not recorded, so that the average 
does not give an accurate idea of the average size. The average of 
those examined was 17.2 acres. 

The development of the commercial orchard. — Half a century ago the 
agriculture of Western New York was grain raising and general farm- 




Fig. 40. — Many of the public roads arc lined with apple-trees. 



ing. The orchards were " kitchen orchards." They were planted 
around the house or in some corner that could not be used for the 
regular crops. The busy farmer paid little attention to the trees. He 
merely gathered the apples, and gave about the same attention to the 
orchard that the boys gave to the chestnut tree. The apples were a clean 
gift. If there were enough for the kitchen and the cider barrel the farmer 
was satisfied. He had no quarrel with the worms or the scab fungus. 
The more worms the more cider apples, and since the farmer sometimes 
appreciated the cider barrel fully as much as he did the apple barrel, he 
was willing to share the crop with the insects. 



258 Bulletin 226. 

About i860 men began to plant real commercial orchards. For the 
first time in the history of the new world, large commercial apple orchards 
were planted with a view to selling the fruit. It is no wonder that 
some mistakes were made. The old ideas gained from the kitchen 
orchard and cider manufacture were naturally carried over into the new 
industry. Little was really known about the apple-tree. No one knew 
much about insects and fungi, or how to treat them. Nor did they know 
how to market fruit. Transportation and markets had to be developed. 
The poor fruit and low prices discouraged many men. A few even cut 
down their orchards. 

But these years accomplished much. The cheap apples educated 
the taste of the public and created a demand for more apples. Together, 
the farmer and Experiment Station man have worked out methods of 
culture, and have learned how to control the enemies of the apple. 

But it takes time for new ideas to become established. The farmer 
is conservative. It is well that he is so. Because he moves slowly, he 
moves surely. He never needs to retrace his steps. We cannot ex- 
pect every one to accept all the new ideas in orchard treatment as 
soon as they are advanced. It has always required a generation of 
men to establish any new agricultural system. Changes must largely 
come through the new generation. Some mature men can readily 
adapt themselves to new conditions, but it is usually the young man, 
born under these conditions, who really accepts them. 
• The many neglected orchards are records of the agriculture of the 
past, the growing number that are well cared for are the forerunners 
of the new. In the next fifty years the lake counties of western New 
York seem destined to become one continuous fruit farm of apples, 
pears, peaches, cherries, plums and small fruits. 

The change from general farming to fruit farming has been very 
gradual. The decrease in the fertility of the soil and western compe- 
tition have forced men who were trained in grain farming and who 
preferred that work to become fruit growers. The grain crops have 
generally ceased to be profitable when grown for market. This has 
directed attention to the small apple orchard which has so frequently 
supported a family when the remainder of the farm gave no profit, or 
an actual loss. There are many men who still neglect the orchard 
to care for the field crops when there is not time to take good care of 
both, but others take the businesslike view and tend to the most profit- 
able crop first. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 259 

All through this report the fewer orchards, poorer care, and less 
yields in the south part of the county are apparent. This difference may 
be due partly to the more favorable climate near the lake, but this factor 
is a minor one. The south part of the county has, in general, soils that 
retain their fertility longer than those in the north part. The grain crops 
consequently continued profitable for a longer time. The orchards arc- 
less profitable because less care is given to them. When equally well 
cared for they have given as good crops as have those in the north part 
of the county. 

The last few years have seen a rapid improvement in orchard 
management. Ten years ago there were few cultivated orchards ex- 
cept those in which crops were grown. Orchards were quite commonly 
considered to be an unprofitable investment. How could they be 
profitable when not tilled, pruned, fertilized or sprayed? But a 
gradual improvement has been taking place and has been reflected in 
the increased profits, until apples are now looked upon as the money- 
producing crop of the county. Nearly all orchards have received im- 
proved care in some respect. It may have been nothing more than a 
spraying or pruning, or an application of manure when all of these were 
needed, but the trees have almost invariably responded to any kind of 
improved care. Fourteen per cent have been distinctly renovated during 
the past ten years. These have been fairly well cared for in every way. 

The canker worm formerly devastated large numbers of orchards 
year after year. Spraying came into popularity in combating this pest. 
The canker worm is now almost exterminated, but the many other good 
effects of spraying have firmly established this practice. Even those 
orchards which are not sprayed must be greatly benefited, because the 
men who do spray help to keep the insect enemies of the entire neighbor- 
hood in check. 

But what has been done in the past ten years in renovating orchards 
is small in comparison with what remains to be done. The apple- 
consuming public is constantly demanding a better product. This means 
that the fruit-grower who can not or will not produce good apples must 
fall out of the race. Each year a large number of such men is giving 
place to energetic men who are not satisfied to grow anything but the 
best. Tt is these good fruit-growers that will insure the continued 
supremacy of New York apples. 



260 



Bulletin 226. 




Picking the crop, The customary method. 



CHAPTER II. 
Tillage. 

Acreage of tilled and unfilled orchards- — About 30 per cent of the 
orchards that were set before 1880 were tilled in 1903. This percent- 
age is slightly below what it would have been in a favorable season. 
The very dry weather in the early spring prevented many from 
plowing. 

About half of the orchards of the county have been in sod five to ten 
years or more. The other half are tilled more or less. In the south 
part very few old orchards are tilled, — only 12 per cent in 1903. In 
the north part tillage is much more common. It is practiced more in 
Walworth township than in any other part of the county. Here less 
than one-third of the orchards are in sod permanently (see Table 7 and 8). 

Table 7. 
Treatment prior to IQ03. Trees set before 1S80. 



TREATMENT. 


Walworth. 


Remainder of the 
County. 


Entire County. 


No. or- 
chards. 


Acres. 


Per No. or- 
cein.' chards. 


Acres. 


Per 
cent. 


No. or- 
chards. 


Acres. 


Per 
cent. 


Tilled 5 years or more.. 

Tilled most years 

Sod most years, tilled 


44 
64 

73 
87 


307 3 / 
242 

323 
335 


25 12 
20 8 

27 t8 


219^ 
208 

195^ 
852^ 


is 
14 

13 

58 


56. 
72 

91 
145 


527X 
450 

518^ 

1187^ 


20 

17 

19 
44 


Sod 5 years, or more. . . 


28 


58 



Table 8. 
Treatment in 1903 of orchards set before 1880. 





Walworth. 


South Part County. 


Nor'h PartCounty. 


Entire County. 


TREATMENT. 


0! 

rt 

S5-S- 


Acres. 




S5-S 


Acres. 


Oh 9j 


si 


Acres. 




1 t/i 

Q--S 

55 -8 


Acres. 




Sod(not pastured) 
Sod (cattle pas- 
ture) 


132 

71 

8 

44 


460 

342 

47 
151 


30 
22 

3 

10 


9 

18 

5 
6 


95 

173^ 

44 
46 


23 

43 

11 
11 


17 
14 

II 
3 


2l8^ 
333 

239 

27 


19 
29 

21 
2 


158 
103 

24 

53 


773 H 

848^ 

330 
224 


25 
27 

I T 


Sod (sheep pas- 
ture) 


Sod (hog pasture) 


7 


Total sod 

Tilled 


255 
124 


1000 

538y 2 


65 
35 


38 
6 


358'A 
49 


88 
12 


45 
17 


343 


71 
30 


338 

147 


2176 
930'- 


70 
30 





261 



262 



Bulletin 226. 



Crops were grown in 1903 in about one-third of the tilled orchards. 
About 8 per cent of the entire area, or 27 per cent of the tilled area, was 
sown to cover-crops, to be plowed under. The remainder were tilled 
without any crop, but a cover-crop of weeds was quite common. 

Three-fourths of the orchards set since 1879 were tilled in 1903. 
Crops were grown in all but 7 per cent of those that were tilled. The 
young orchard generally takes its place as one field in the crop rota- 
tion. This keeps it in sod about one-fourth of the time, in small grain 
one-fourth of the time, and in tilled crops half the years (Table 9). 



Table 9. 
Treatment in 1903 of orchards set since 1S79. 





Walworth. 


Remainder ok the 
County. 


Entire County. 


TREATMENT. 


No. or- 
chards. 


Acres. 


Per 

cent 

19 

5 


No. or- 
chards. 

4 
4 


Acres. 


Per 
cent. 


No. or- 
chards. 


Acres. 


Per 

cent. 


Sod (not pastured) 

Sod (pastured) 


3 


41 
11% 


l6% 
82 


4 

20 


17 

7 


57% 
93/2 


9 

15 


Total sod 


16 

48 


$2% 

163K 


24 
76 


8 
16 


98^ 
312 


24 
76 


24 
64 


151 

475K 


24 
76 


Tilled 





Yields of tilled and unfilled orchards. — Table 10 gives the yields for 
four years of orchards that have been tilled every year for at least five 
years previous to the crop reported, those that were tilled over half 
the years, those that were tilled occasionally but not half the time, and 
fors those that have been in sod every year for at least five years. 

It will be seen that the tilled orchards have given a uniformly larger 
yield than those in sod. the four-year average of the tilled ones being 
80 per cent above that of the untilled. Perhaps the most striking point 
in the tables is the uniform agreement of the averages for each of 
the three parts of the county and for each of the four years. It should 
be remembered that these tables include every orchard set before 1880, 
for which reports of yields could be obtained, and that every orchard in 
Walworth was examined. There can be no further question as to whether 
the average sod or the average tilled orchard in Wayne county gives the 
larger yield. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 263 



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264 



Bulletin 226. 



A part of this very great difference is' doubtless due to other factors. 
The man who regularly tills his orchard is more likely to fertilize, 
prune and spray well. To see how much of this difference is due to 
tillage and how much is due to other factors another classification was 
made. 

Table 1 1 shows the average yields of those orchards that have been 
fairly well cared for. They differ only in the factor of tillage. All 
have received some fertilization, have been fairly well pruned, are 
not diseased or in bad condition from any cause. Of these well cared 
for orchards the tilled ones gave an average of 35 per cent above the 
untilled. This tabulation doubtless gives too high a yield for the 



Table ii. 

Yield in bnslicls of tilled and sod orchards. Average for the entire county of trees 

set before 1S80. Orchards all well cared for. 



TREATMENT. 



Tilled 5 years or more 
Tilled most years. . . . 

Sod most years 

Sod 5 years or more. . 





1 goo. 






igor. 


No. 
25 


Acres. 


Average 
yield. 

348 


No. 
22 


Acres. 


175^ 


I77X 


22 


l8l 


353 


21 


188 


24 


209 


260 


25 


244/4 


25 


206 


224 


31 


249 



Average 

yield. 



99 
38 
7^ 
45 



Table ii — Concluded. 





igo2. 


1903. 


Four- 


TREATMENT. 


No. 


Acres. 


Average 
yield. 

311 
339 
235 
269 


No. 


Acres. 

345 
99 'A 
122 

157^ 


Average 
yield. 


year 
average. 


Tilled 5 years or more. . . . 

Tilled most years 

Sod most years 


38 
38 
46 
47 


40 1 # 
26l^ 

365 Vz 
356^ 


23 
16 

15 
22 


326 
249 

257 
263 


271 
245 
206 


Sod 5 years or more 


200 



orchards in sod, for in making it all diseased ones were thrown out. 
Jn many cases these should have been included, for the disease fre- 
quently gets a foothold because the sod has lowered the vitality of the 
trees. The real difference due to sod will therefore lie between the 
80 per cent shown by Table 10 and the 35 per cent shown by Table 11. 

Docs tillage pay? — These tables do not show that every sod -orchard 
should be tilled, but they do show that it would pay to till the average 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 265 

one. If a sod orchard is giving good yields, and if the trees are mak- 
ing sufficient growth to keep up their vitality, it may be desirable to 
keep it in sod. By the liberal use of barnyard manure or straw mulch, 
an orchard may be kept in good condition without tillage. The trouble 
is that so many do not receive enough of either. The same results may 
be accomplished with much less manure if the orchard is tilled. If the 
orchard is in sod and is not yielding well, or if the trees are losing their 
vitality, even if the yield is still good, it will probably pay to till. 




Fig. 41. — One year's grozvth in a cornfield. A live-acre orchard planted by Jay E. 
Allis. Compare with Fig. 42. 



Whatever the best treatment of a thrifty orchard may be, there is 
no question about the advisability of tilling one that needs renovating 
or of tilling young trees (see page 309, and Figs. 41, 42, 43). 

There are some market! advantages of sod. It requires less work 
to leave the trees in sod. If the land is very stony, the tillage brings 
the stones to the surface and makes a bad place for the apples to fall. 
Sod is also better to haul spray rigs over. Perhaps the greatest 
advantage is in having a sod for the apples to fall on. This is par- 
ticularly desirable when the entire crop is to be shaken off for evapo- 



266 



Bulletin 226. 



rating. Cover-crops will, to some extent, take the place of sod, but it is 
difficult to get a good cover-crop under large trees. Apples usually color 
better on sod and are said to keep better, but are not so large. Some 
experiments are now being conducted on these points. 



Fig. 42. — One year's grozvth zvhen set in timothy sod. A 13-acre orchard in Orleans 
county. (Compare with Fig. //.') Here the trees are of secondary importance. 

Tillage, fertilization, pruning and spraying arc the chief factors that 
enter into good care of an orchard. ( )ne or more of these may some- 
times be omitted without seriously affecting the trees. Tillage may 

lessen the need for 
fertilization. Fertili- 
zation may help to 
make up for lack of 
tillage. Some years 
few insects or fungi 
attack the trees, so 
that spraying is not 
much needed. Very 
frequently a grower 
becomes impressed 
with the importance 
of one of these fac- 
tors and makes a 
hobby of it to the ex- 
clusion of all the others ; but the most successful man is the one who 
keeps a proper balance between all four, and who does not expect spraying 
to replace manure, tillage or pruning, or vice versa. 




Fig. 43. — A feiv furrows plowed along each tree rozv 
lessen the evil effects of sod. Would it not fay better 

to raise only filled crops 9 



Ax Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 267 

Where' docs your orchard conic, in the table on page 350? Is it where 
you want it to be? If so, continue your present methods; if not, then 
try to find out where the trouble is. 

The results of good and bad treatment arc not always apparent the first 
year. — The great difficulty in determining what kind of treatment pays 
best in any particular orchard is the fact that it may be several years 
before the results are apparent in the difference in crops. If this fact 
were kept in mind by the orchardists, a very large part of the differ- 




Fig. 44, — Tillage v. neglect. The rows on the right ivere left in sod. those on the left 
were tilled. The trees were othenvisc similarly treated . and are of the same age. 



ence of opinion as to the best method of caring for an orchard would 
disappear. Very frequently a grower has followed a few years of 
good care by a period of neglect and has received an increased yield 
as a result. The trees may be making almost no new wood, and may 
be so lowered in vitality as to be easy victims of canker and other 
diseases. Yet the increased crop may have persuaded the grower thai 
this is the ideal treatment. No care can be good if it does not look 
out for the future of the orchard. Many orchards need treatment that 
will actually decrease the yield for several years, while care that will 



268 



Bulletin 226. 



greatly increase the yield may be destroying' the trees or shortening 
their period of life. The most profitable crop that could be grown in 
many orchards is new wood, and consequent new vigor in the trees. The 
returns may be more apparent in five or ten years than in the first 
year or two. Occasionally there is an orchard that is growing too 




Fig. 45. — One kind of "culture." This twelve-acre orchard could be renovated 
and made a good orchard. 



fast and that would be benefited by sod, but they are not common. 
A much larger number are dying back faster than new wood is being 
formed. 

In Fig. 44 is shown an experiment in orchard management that was 
carried on by T. G. Yeomans & Sons for many years. The trees on the 
left were tilled and fertilized. Those on the righl were fertilized the same 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 269 

but were left in timothy sod. The trees in sod are so badly weakened that 
the land has been plowed and a start made toward renovating them. 

Methods of tillage. — Orchards are commonly plowed in the fall. 
This is frequently done so as to have less spring work. Early spring 
plowing would seem to be much more desirable for an orchard. The 
grass or weeds will hold the snow and leaves. 

In a few orchards the roots are so near the surface as to prevent 
plowing. Such an orchard may be tilled with a spading harrow, disk or, 
on sandy soils, with a spring-tooth harrow. 

The ideal system of tillage for most orchards is early plowing or 
disking, followed by clean tillage until about July 1st. Some kind of 
a cover-crop is then sown. This cover-crop will produce humus to be 
plowed under ; it furnishes a partial substitute for sod for the apples 
to fall on; it will help to remove surplus water during the latter part 
of the season and thus cause the fruit to color better. Fig. 61 and the 
frontispiece show orchards, that are receiving. this kind of treatment. 

Methods of sod treatment. — Many of the orchards that are in sod are 
pastured by cattle, hogs, sheep and horses. From some hay is cut ; 
from others the grass is not removed, — usually because there is not 
enough to pay for cutting. A very few farmers are trying the so-called 
mulch method of cutting the grass that grows in the orchard and 
leaving it where it falls or throwing it under the trees. There were 
not enough of them, nor had the work been continued long enough 
so that a statistical report could be made. 

Table 12 shows the yields for 1902, with the different methods of sod 
treatment. The number of orchards is not sufficient to give con- 
clusive results. It would appear that pasturing with cattle is the 
worst possible treatment for an orchard, a conclusion that is in 

Table 12. 

Yields in bushels for igoj.ivith various methods of sod treatment. Trees set before 

18S0. 



TREATMENT. 



Pastured with hogs 
Pastured with sheep 
Pastured with cattle 
Sod, not pastured . . 



No. 
orchards. 



22 

15 

54 
47 



Acres. 



105^ 
232 
392 
256^ 



Average 
yield. 



271 
2l6 
159 

185 



270 



Bulletin 226. 




An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 271 



accord with the appearance of the orchards thus pastured. Cattle rub 
on the trees, break the branches and browse the limbs as high as they 
can reach. The few dollars that it would cost to procure a regular 
pasture for them is lost many times over by the damage to the trees. 
Horses are not so frequently pastured in the orchards, but are 
equally injurious. In one case a good young orchard had nearly every 
tree stripped*of its bark by a span of horses. The orchard was worth 
about five times as much as the horses. 

Next in the scale of injuriousness to pasturing cattle in an orchard 
is the raising of hay in it. The hay crop grows in the spring at the 
time when the apple-trees make their growth. It therefore uses the 
plant-food and water at the time when the trees need it most. If the 
grass is left on the ground the 
mulch helps to preserve the 
moisture, and leaves the 
plant-food so that the damage 
is not so great. 

Sheep crop the grass close 
to the ground, and so to some 
extent prevent the large evap- 
oration that occurs in a hay 
field. The manure dropped 
by them is also of consider- 
able value. Fig. 46 shows an 
orchard that is pastured by sheep early in the season. This is one of the 
best sod orchards. Large applications of barnyard manure are used. 
Several of the limbs that show a lack of foliage are infected by canker. 
If sheep are allowed to run in the orchard during the latter part of the 
season, they frequently pick many apples. If prices are good, the apples 
eaten may be of more value than the sheep (see Fig. 47). 

Pasturing with hogs seems to give better yields than any other 
method of sod treatment. The hogs usually do considerable rooting, 
and so prevent the formation of a tough sod. In some cases the 
orchard that has hogs in it might almost be classed as a tilled orchard. 
The difference is also largely due to the manure. The hogs receive most 
of their food from outside the orchard, so that there is a constant addi- 
tion to the plant-food in the soil. Cattle and sheep are usually fed 
much less. 




Fig. 47. — Sheep have removed about a barrel 
of apples from each tree in this orchard. 



272 Bulletin 226. 

Hogs frequently do considerable damage to the trees, particularly if the 
feed-yard is in the orchard. Around the place where they are fed they 
rub the trunks and roots, pack the soil so as to make it impervious to 
air, and sometimes bark the trees. It is well to remember that one good 
apple-tree is worth more than a hog, and that a small strip of bark 
removed will usually result in a decayed tree. There should always be 
a feed-yard outside the orchard. ' 

Hogs or sheep do considerable good by eating the apples that fall 
early, and so disposing of many worms. 

None of the methods of sod treatment equal tillage in average yields. 
A comparison of Table 12 with Table 10 shows the force of this statement. 



CHAPTER III. 
Fertilization. 

Fertilizers used. — The majority of orchards receive no commercial 
fertilizer or green manure, but are given a limited amount of barn- 
yard manure — usually much too limited. One-third receive no fer- 
tilizing of any kind. Sixty per cent receive barnyard manure, either 
alone or in combination with commercial fertilizer, green manure, etc. ; 
green manure is used alone or in combination in 12 per cent; commercial 
fertilizer is used alone or with other manures in 13 per cent (see 
Table 13). 

These figures show too high a percentage receiving some kind of 
fertilizer. In many cases only a little manure was applied, but the 
orchard was included with those receiving manures. In others the 
fertilization was given so long ago as to be of no consequence at 
present. Probably less than half the orchards receive enough to 
entitle them to be properly included with those receiving fertilization. 

Table 13. 
Summary of fertilizers used. All ages of orchards included. 



FERTILIZER. 


Used with 
UsKn Alone. Other Fertilizers. 


Total. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. acres. 


Per 
cent. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. acres. 


Per 
cent. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. acres. 


Per 
cent. 
















154 
272 

50 
31 


1101,72 
1962^ 

416 
409 


33-5 
59-7 

12.6 


Barnyard manure 
Commercial fer- 
tilizer 


214 

10 
14 


1453.^ 
103 

H7)4 


44-3 

3.1 40 


509 

313 
291^ 


15-5 

9-5 
8.8 


Green manure. . . 


3-5 


17 


12.3 



Orchards receiving no fertilization of any kind. 



Walworth 

South part of county . 
North part of county 



No. orchards. No. acres 



117 

21 
16 



453 
241 

407 l A 



31-4 
62.2 
28.1 



In many of the fertilized orchards the manure was used with a view 
to helping some crop planted in the orchard. Of course if it is applied, 
the apple-trees will make use of a part of it. 



274 



Bulletin 226. 



Fertilization and yield. — The records of the use of barnyard manure 
and fertilizers do not cover a long enough period to be used in com- 
paring crops before 1902. The average yields of fertilized orchards 
for the years 1902 and 1903 were 55 bushels above that of those that 
were unfertilized (see Table 14). 



Table 14. 

Yield in bushels for 1902 and 1903 for fertilized and unfertilised orchards. Trees 

set before 1S80. 



Fertilized . . 

Unfertilized 





1902. 






1903. 




No. 
orchards. 


Acres. 

2, 1 16;4 
692 


Average 
yield. 


No. 
orchards. 


Acres. 

\,2ioy 2 

343 # 


Average 

yield. 

28l 
231 


292 

II I 


233 

173 


M7 
44 



Two-year 
average. 



257 
202 



Necessity for fertilization. — The cultivated orchards demand much 
less fertilization than the untilled ones, for the tillage makes food that 
is in the soil available. There are, however, very few soils that do not 
need some material added at least in the form of green manure. 

Many of tbe less progressive growers fail to recognize the orchard 
as a crop that requires food as do otber crops. A common reply to the 
question of the kind of manure used was. " We don't raise anything 
in the orchard so we do not use any manure or fertilizer," the growth 
of wood, leaves, and apples not being recognized as a drain on the plant- 
food in the soil. But the number of those who recognize the orchard as 
a crop requiring food and care is rapidly increasing. The small, light- 
colored leaves, the very little growth, the small apples, are requests 
for food. The owner shoTild answer the demand with manure or tillage, 
usually with both. 

The amount of plant-food removed by the apple crop compared with 
that removed by the wheat crop. — The following tables, based on Bulletin 
No. 103 of this Station, show something of the demands made by the 
apple orchard. All the leaves were gathered from a medium-sized, 
mature apple-tree and were analyzed. The trunk, branches and the roots 
were also analvzed.* 



*Cornel! Bulletin 103. October, 1805. This bulletin is now nut of print. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 275 



I mile 15. 
Plant-food in apple leaves. 



Total weight 

Total weight water 

Total weight dry matter 

Total weight nitrogen. ...... 

Total weight phosphoric acid 
Total weight potash 



Leaves of one 
tree analyzed. 



-6- 
139 


51 '" 


92 


5i " 




96 " 




37 " 


r 


32 " 



Estimated for one 
acre of 35 trees. 



33.6 lbs. 

12.95 " 
46 . 2 " 



Table \<>. 
1'lant-food in wood and roots. 





Wood and roots 
of one tree 
analyzed. 


Estimated for one 
acre of js trees. 


Estimated amount 

removed per 

year.* 


Total weight 

Total weight water 


5,251.4 lbs. 
2,300.18 " 
2.951.22 " 
8.09 " 

3-07 " 

7-55 " 










Total weight dry matter 






Total weight nitrogen 


283.15 lbs. 

107.45 " 
264.25 " 


6.29 lbs. 
2-39 " 

5.87 " 


Total weight phosphoric acid... . 
Total weight potash 





*To get the estimate of the amount required for wood and roots each year, it was 
assumed that A of the mature tree was grown each year. Trees 45 years old are 
usually larger than the tree analyzed. 



Table 17, 
Composition of wheat. 

Water. Nitrogen. 

Grain 14 . 75% 2 . 36% 



Straw 1 2 . 56 



.56 



Phosphoric 
acid. 

0.89% 

.12 



Potash. 
0.6l% 

• 5r 



Composition of apples. 



Water. 


Nitrogen. 


Phosphoric- 
acid. 


Potash. 


85.3? 


O.I3'' 


0.01^ 


O.I9^ 



276 Bulletin 226. 

Table 18. 
Total plant-food removed in one year by wheat and by apples. 





Nitrogen. 


Phosphoric acid. 


Potash. 


300 bushels of apples 


19.50 lbs. 

33 60 " 

6 . 29 " 


1.50 lbs. 

12.95 " 
2-39 " 


28.50 


Leaves 


46.20 


Wood 


5-87 






Total 


59-39 lbs. 


16.84 lbs. 


80.57 





28.32 lbs. 
14.00 " 


10.68 lbs. 
3.00 " 


7-32 

12.75 








Total 


42.32 lbs. 


13.68 lbs. 


20.07 



According to these estimates it requires, for crops of the size indicated, 
about four times as much potash, and more nitrogen and phosphoric acid, 
to grow the apples than is required to grow the wheat. In considering 
these tables there are several points to keep in mind. The apple roots 
go deeper into the ground and so have more soil from which to draw 
their food supply. If the ground has some kind of a crop growing on 
it, the leaves may be largely retained in the orchard. The amount of 
plant-food used by the wood is not very well known, as it is difficult to 
determine what an average growth is. But even the 300 bushels of apples, 
without any leaves or wood growth, require more potash and nearly half 
as much nitrogen as is required to produce the wheat and straw. 

Manure may be 'shipped in from the cities. — A few of the more pro- 
gressive growers have shipped in manure from Buffalo. This costs 
about $28 per car, but if applied when needed it gives a very large 
return. Some have feared to use it on account of the danger of getting 
weed seed. There seems to be no trouble in subduing any weeds that 
come with it when it is applied to the orchard. There may be some 
danger of animal diseases being carried in the manure. A much larger 
total of manure is secured from the many smaller cities and towns, but 
this is usually not obtainable in very large quantities. 

Manure may be profitably secured by the feeding of cattle. — A few 
growers have fed cattle during the winter in order to secure manure. 
This enables them to buy their fertilizer in the form of feed. The cattle 
usually give a fair profit. The manure obtained, added to this, makes 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 277 

the practice quite profitable. It seems probable that more of this 
winter feeding will be done in the future. The expense of caring for 
stock in the winter is not very great. The fertilizing value of the 
feed is frequently over half of its cost.* 

Method of applying man 11 re. — Manure is almost always applied in a 
small circle around the base of the tree. This is a serious mistake. 
The roots of a bearing orchard occupy all the ground. Those from 
one row may extend beyond the next row. The small feeding roots 
are naturally most numerous at some distance from the tree, much as 
the active twigs are found at the ends of the large branches. The 
manure should therefore be applied to the entire ground. If any place 
is not covered, let it be that near the trunk. Professor Roberts has 
aptly likened the application around the trunk to putting the hay under 
the horse's feet. 

Cover-crops. — More orchards are in need of humus than are in need 
of the direct application of plant-food. For this reason the applica- 
tion of barnyard manure generally gives much better results than the 
use of fertilizers. This is particularly true of sod orchards. Tilled 
orchards usually do as well when green manure with potash and phos- 
phoric acid are used. On some of the stronger soils no fertilization of 
any kind may be needed for many years, if plenty of green manure is 
plowed under. 

Eight per cent of the mature orchards of the county were sown to cover- 
crops in 1902. Buckwheat was the most common, followed by crim- 
son clover and common red clover. Rye, large clover, cow-peas, alfalfa, 
peas and oats, and vetch were also grown. Buckwheat furnishes a large 
amount of humus and leaves the soil in a friable condition. It is not a 
legume, and so can not use nitrogen from the air. Crimson clover has 
generally done well, but some growers have had difficulty in getting a 
stand. One man has grown it every other year for fourteen years. 
Common red clover has been most satisfactory when a year of tillage 
has been followed by a year in which the clover is cut and left on the 
land to be plowed under the second year. Peas and oats have given 
good results in most cases. f 



*For tables of the value of the fertilizing elements in various feeds, see Cornell 
Bulletin 154. 

tFor a more extended discussion of orchard cover-crops, see Cornell Bulletin 198. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Pruning. 

The former methods of pruning. — Pruning was at first greatly neg- 
lected. Just as the majority of orchards were formerly left to fight 
their way in competition with other plants, so the limbs in each tree 
were allowed to fight with each other. Only a few orchards have 
been well pruned from the time of planting. In some pruning was 
almost entirely neglected for years ; in others it was done and is still 




Fig. 48. — Years of neglect followed by too severe priming. 

done in such a manner as to do more harm than good. There is a 
tendency among careless farmers to let the trees go for several years 
and then give them a "thorough trimming" (see Fig. 48), rather than 
prune some every year, as the careful grower does. Perhaps one-fifth 
of the orchards are now well pruned, and this number is being added to 
each year, as the number of real fruit-growers increases. The problem 
of pruning among the bearing trees of Wayne county is, therefore, not 
that of training an ideal tree from the time it is planted ; but the far 
more difficult problem of correcting the effects of former neglect. 

Ho-^< wounds heal. — Intelligent pruning is based on a knowledge of 
the causes of decay, and of the way in which wounds heal. 

278 



An Apple Orchard Survey ok Wayne County, New York. 279 

The living and growing part of a tree is the cambium layer. This 
is a tissue lying upon the outside of the wood and beneath the bark. 
From its outside it produces bark, and from its inside it produces wood. 
It is this layer of young, tender cells that makes the bark " slip " so readily 
in early summer. The inner part of the tree is not active; its value to the 
tree is in supporting the living part. If this center part decays, the tree 
usually continues to grow till it breaks down (see Fig. 52). 

This dead inner wood is protected by the bark and living portion 
so that fungi and bacteria cannot reach it. When a large limb is 
removed the seal is broken and the dead wood is exposed. Having 
no life, it cannot resist infection by germs any more than a dead log 
can do so. The safety of the tree depends on having the wound 
healed over before it becomes infected. The wound heals by the 
growth of the cambium layer. If the wound is small it will usually 
be sealed up before the fungi get established; but if the dead stub is 
exposed for a long time the wood-rot fungi are almost certain to attack it 
and cause the trunk to decay. If the wound does then heal over, the 
mycelium of the fungi is established and may continue to grow within the 
tree.* The decay may reach into the living tissue, but its most serious 
effects are in so weakening the trunk as to cause it to break down. In 
order to avoid the rotten trunks that are so common in the majority of 
the orchards, three things should lie observed: 

1. Large limbs should not be removed unless it is absolutely necessary. 

2. When such limbs must be removed, the pruning should be so done 
as to favor rapid healing of the wounds. 

3. Large wounds should be protected by paint till the tree can seal 
them. 

The removal of large limbs. — The ideal way would be to have the 
tree so pruned from the time it is planted that there would never be 
occasion for the removal of large limbs. But very many orchards 
were neglected so long that it may be necessary to cut out such limbs. 
Eighteen per cent of the orchards are still practically unpruned. In 
a neglected orchard some limbs may be damaged by neglect or lack 
of food. ( )thers die as a result of the shade caused by dense tops, or 
the trees being too close together. Even in a well cared for orchard 
an occasional limb will be broken by the wind, or by too heavy a load 
of fruit, or will die from other causes. But much of the removal of 



*Cornc!l Bulletin E93, Shade Trees and Timber-Destroying Fun$ 



28o 



Bulletin 226. 



large limbs is done without cause. In the orchard shown in Fig. 48, 
the trees had too many of these as a result of neglect, but it would 
have been better to have thinned the tops by the removal of small 
branches than by cutting out the scaffold limbs. It takes more time 
to prune by the former method, but the time is well spent. The ulti- 
mate death of most 
trees can be traced to 
the careless removal 
of large limbs. The 
wound is too large 
heal, or the cut is made in ^H 
such a way that it can not ^B 
heal. Wood-rot fungi get a ^ 
foothold and soon the tree has 
a hollow trunk. The wind then 
breaks off the branches one by one 
till the tree is gone (see Figs. 5; 
and 54). 

Stub pruning. — Much can be done 
to prevent the fungi and bacteria fron 
getting a foothold. If the limb is c 
close to the body of the tree, and parallel 
with it, the tree will be able to heal wound 
of considerable size before decay sets in. 1 
pruning should be done in such a manner 
no portion of the amputated branch is left 
a limb is cut an inch from the body the wound 
requires much longer to heal than it would if 
no stub were left. A stub several inches long 
seldom heals over. It has no life of its own, 
and so must depend on material that comes from 

other branches to heal it ; but a projecting stub is out of the line of move- 
ment of the sap — -it is sidetracked. Instead of healing over the end of 
the stub, a roll of new growth is thrown up around its base where the cut 
should have been made. 

In a little over sixteen per cent of the orchards examined bad stubs 
were left, varying in length from one or two inches to one foot. 




Fig. 49. — Long stubs left 
when pruning. These 
cause the trunks to de- 
cay and finally result in 
broken trees. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 281 



There are two reasons for leaving - these long' stubs. One, I fear the 
more common one, is because it is easier to do so. But many farmers 
leave a long stub when a large limb must be removed because they think 
that the wound will be too large to heal, and by leaving the long stub 
they hope to keep the rot away from the tree. The rapidity with 
which fungi penetrate the wood after they get started refutes this 
practice. Success 
must come from 
preventing the start 
of decay, not from 
giving it a long dis- 
tance to travel be- 
fore it gets into the 
trunk. In one forty- 
acre orchard the 
owner left stubs 
about a foot long to 
serve as ladders ! 
His successor has 
gone through the 
orchard and cut 
these off and has 
done what was pos- 
sible to prevent 
further decay. 

In Fig. 49 is 
shown a tree with 
long stubs that will 
result in its death. 
Fig- 54 gives what 
will be the next step. 
The outside of this 
stub shows the seed-forming bodies (spore fruits) of the fungi ; but it does 
not look very bad, while the inside is so decayed that it only needed a good 
load of fruit to break the tree. Fig. 53 is another stub that will ultimately 
cause the death of the tree. The tape-measure shows how far the stick 
extends into the decayed hole. The decay, of course, goes much farther. 
Fig. 50 shows a decayed hole that was caused by leaving a large wound 




Fig. 50. — The decayed hole caused by wood-destroying 
fungi. (See Figs, jr and 5-?.) 



282 



Bulletin 22C. 




Fig. 51. — The same tree as Fig. 50. showing the extent of the decay. The tree 
was about 16 inches in diameter and had only about tzvo inches of sound zvood 
on the outside, a mere shell. The white mould is the mycelium of fungi. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 283 

unpainted. The hole is now nearly closed, but it is too late, as will be 
seen by Fig. 51, which shows the inside of the same tree. There is only 
a few inches of undecayed .wood on the outside of the trunk. The white 
mould (mycelium) all through the trunk shows how badly decayed the 
tree is. The tree was a very thrifty one, and was apparently unaffected, 
but the rotted trunk was no longer strong enough to support it (Fig. 52). 
Paint should be used on the larger wounds. — Only a very few orchards 
were seen where paint was used. Painting the wounds should become 






SflRBKL. 




Fig. 52. — The rotten trunk resulted in the breaking of the tree. (See Figs. 50-,n.) 



an accepted practice. The paint does not help to heal the wounds, nor 
does it hinder healing, as some have supposed. It is to prevent the wood- 
rot fungi from getting a foothold. It acts as a partial seal till the tree 
can protect the wound in its own way — by healing over the place. It has 
a similar effect as it has on farm machinery. It protects from weather and 
prevents fungi and bacteria from causing decay. The cost of painting all 
the wounds above two inches in diameter is not great. If this is done, 
and if the larger ones are repainted every vear, the increased longevity of 
the tree will amply repay the cost. One good apple-tree will pay for 



284 



Bulletin 226. 



painting many wounds. Lead paint is the most satisfactory for this pur- 
pose, but any durable paint is probably good. 

Thinning the tops. — If the tops are so dense that air can not circulate 
through them it is almost impossible to spray well. The moisture 
remains long after every rain or dew, and so favors all kinds of fungous 
growths. The fruit will be of poor quality and poorly colored. Dense 
tops favor the development of insects and diseases, but not of apples. 

The frontispiece shows a 
well-pruned t re e. Noti ce 
that the light shines through 
the top in spite of the fact 
that there is a large crop of 
fruit and excellent foliage. 
Contrast this with Fig. 59. 
But even this latter orchard 
is better pruned than the 
average. 

Pruning should vary with 
the thrift of the trees. — If an 
orchard is so treated that the 
leaves are small and the 
growth very little, many 
more limbs should be left 
than in a thrifty orchard. 
Poor color of the fruit in 
tilled orchards could be im- 
proved to some extent if 
these trees were pruned 
more openly. The tree in 
the frontispiece shows ideal 
conditions. The air and 
light can filter through the 
top and reach every leaf and every apple. If this tree were not tilled or 
fertilized it could have about double the number of limbs without making 
the tops any denser. A neglected tree would be a mere skeleton if pruned 
as this thrifty tree is pruned. 

When is tlie best time to prune ? — As a result of a series of experiments 
in pruning at various times in the year Professor Bailey concludes as 



i 




•■-"■ 


' 


M 




u§§ 


1 •' j|f<<.&i 


3Hff*r . 



Fig. 53. — The long stub continued. The tape 
shows hozv far the stick extends into flic 
rotten trunk. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 285 

follows: "The conclusion, — and my general opinion, — in respect to the 
season of pruning', so far as the healing of wounds is concerned, is this : 
The ideal time is in spring, 
before growth begins (late 
February, March and early 
April in New York;) but 
more depends on the position 
of the wound in the tree and 





Fin. 54. — The long stub resulted in the broken 

tree. 

the length of the stub than on the time of 
year." :;c The best time to prune will gener- 
ally be the time when labor is least expen- 
sive. 

How to treat crotches. — The best way to 
treat a crotch is never to allow one to form ; 
but when one secures an orchard in which 
they are already formed he must do what 
is possible to correct the weakness. 

In Fig. 55 is shown a young tree with a 
bad crotch that will be quite certain to ruin it. 
One of the forks should be cut off. Fig- 56 



Fig. 55. — The crotch which 
will probably cause the 
tree to split. One of the shows the trunk of an old tree similarlv 



leaders should be removed. 



pruned. Fig. 57, from the same orchard as 



*The Pruning-Book, fourth edition. 1902. 



286 



Bulletin 226. 




Fig. 56. — The result' of bad crotches. The tree 
can be saved for further usefulness by bolting 
the two halves together. 



Fig. 56, shows two of the 
split trees and several vacant 
spaces where broken trees 
1 1 a v e been removed. 
Nearly one-fourth of the 
trees in this seven-acre 
orchard are already broken 
down, and as many more 
arc split. There are only 
a few orchards in the hun- 
dreds examined in which 
the trees were thus sys- 
tematical! v pruned to form 
crotches, but in a large 
number of orchards a few 
trees have them. 

The split trees and those 
that are in danger of split- 
ting can yet be saved by 
the use of bolts. A band 
put around a tree will 
girdle it, but a bolt put 
through it does no appre- 




Fig. 57. — The -final result of bad crotches. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 287 



ciable damage. If two bolts that hook into a connecting chain of 

suitable length are used, the work can be much more easily done. The 

two holes are then not necessarily in the same line. The chain also* 

allows for variation 

in length. One bolt 

is put through one 

branch, the other is 

put nearly through 

the other branch, 

and the chain is 

hooked on at the 

proper length. The 

bolts arc then 

drawn up. Or bolts 

with hooks or rings 

on one end may be 

used and strong 

wire used to fasten 

them together. 

X umber of scaf- 
fold limbs. — In Fig. 
58 is shown a tree 
with too man)' scaf- 
fold, or frame work, 
limbs. The time to 
avoid this is when 
the tree is young. 
Some of the smaller 
limbs might still be 
removed with safety if the wounds are kept well painted. 




Fig. 58. — Too many scaffold limbs. Half of these should 
have been pruned out when the tree was young. 



288 



Bulletin 226. 




The usual method of sorting in Orleans county-directly from the table. 




Picking from the table— a slower but more careful method of sorting. 



CHAPTER V. 



Spraying. 

The extent of the practice. — The fact that so many growers evaporate 
their entire crop gives rise to a general laxity in spraying. A little over 
41 per cent of the trees set before 1880 were sprayed in 1903. One-third 
are seldom or never sprayed. 

In 1902 most buyers of apples for evaporating paid the same price 
regardless of the scab fungus. This fungus does not seriously damage 
apples for evaporating unless it is so bad that it stunts or distorts the 
apple or makes it crack. (See Fig. 81.) In 1902 it was very bad in many 
orchards. The clean apples were generally considered to be worth more, 
but were bought at the same price, as one man said, " in order to keep 
peace in the neighborhood." This puts a premium on neglect and prob- 
ably accounts for the large number who do not believe in spraying and 
for the considerable number of those who do spray but do not use the 
Bordeaux mixture. 

Effects of spraying on the yield and price. — The damage from insects 
and the apple-scab in 1903 was much less than usual. But even in this 
year of few insects and little fungus, when most people " saw nothing 
to spray for," spraying paid. The average yield of the sprayed orchards 
was 27 bushels more than that of the unsprayed. (See table 19). This 
was probably due chiefly to the prevention of the large loss caused by 
the bud-moth and to the loss from the codlin-moth. The bud-moth 
did considerable damage in many orchards, but its work was not com- 
monly seen, or if seen, was attributed to a bad wind that made many 
leaves turn brown at about the time when the bud-moth eaused the young 
shoots to die. The codlin-moth causes many apples to fall early in the 
season. A part of the difference may be due to other factors as the sprayed 
orchards averasreH a little better in other treatment. 



Table 19. 
Yield in bushels in 1903 of sprayed and unsprayed orchards. Trees sel before 1880. 



Sprayed . . 
Unsprayed 



No. of 
orchards. 



66 
107 



No. of 
acres. 



626% 
673 



Average yield 
per acre. 



280 
253 



289 



290 



Bulletin 226. 



Table 20. 
Price per barrel of sprayed and unsprayed apples in 1903. 



Sprayed . . . 
Unsprayed 



No. of barrels. 



8,430 
6,365 



Average price 
per barrel. 



$2 02 
I 80 



Table 21. 
Average price per bushel of sprayed and unsprayed apples in 1903. 



No. of bushels. 



Average price 
per bushel. 



Sprayed 

Sprayed, dried by grower . . . 

Unsprayed 

Unsprayed, dried by grower 



110,445 
63,145 
96, 345 
64, 305 



$0 31.8 

27.7 



The average price per barrel of the sprayed apples was $2.02 ; of the 
unsprayed, $1.80. From the sprayed orchards 15 per cent of- the crop 
was barreled; from the unsprayed, 12 per cent. Without considering the 
apples that were evaporated by the grower, the average price of sprayed 
apples was 31.8 cents per bushel ; of unsprayed, 27.7 cents. 

If we count the apples that were evaporated by the growers as worth 
20.7 cents, the average price paid for apples by the evaporators, then the 
income per acre from sprayed orchards averaged $77.84 ; from the 
unsprayed, $63. ( See tables 20 and 21.) 

Most of the sprayed orchards were sprayed but once. Apples from 
many of these brought no higher prices than unsprayed ones, but some 
of those that were well sprayed gave so much better yields and secured 
so much higher prices that they were able to raise the^verage as shown 
above. 

The kinds of sprays used.— Nearly one-fifth of the trees that were 
sprayed received applications of arsenical poison sprays only. The 
smaller orchards were quite commonly so treated. This one-fifth of the 
area included one-third of the number of sprayed orchards. In 21 orchards 
Paris green and water were used without any other materials. (See table 
22.) In view of this and of the exceptionally favorable year the showing 
made by such spraying as was done is satisfactory. 



An Apple Orchard Survey oe Wayne County, New York. 291 

Arsenic is coming to be quite commonly used instead of Paris green, 
particularly in the larger orchards. Tt stays in suspension better than 
Paris green and is somewhat cheaper. Arsenic was used in 58 per cent 
of the area and in 36 per cent of the number of sprayed orchards. 



Table 22. 
Spraying in 1903. Trees set before it 



Walworth. 



No. or- 
chards. 



Sprayed 

Sometimes sprayed 

not in 1903 126 

Seldom or never spray'd 64 



Sprayed. . . 
Un sprayed 



No. acres. 



741 
487X 

2S7 l A 



Per 

cent. 



50 
33 



Remainder of County. 



No. or- 
chards. 



37 

35 
55 



No. acres. 



35 



6Q8-4 
406 Vz 

882 y, 45 



Per 

cent. 



Entire County. 



No. or- 
chards, 



[8l 

l6l 
119 



No. acres. 



1439^ 

893 H 
1140 



Arsenic 

Paris green. 



Poison only 

Poison and Bordeau: 





Trees set since 1879. 








18 1 83 42 3 I 80 


19 I 


21 


163 


40 1 i2y 2 58 19 343 


81 1 


59 


455^ 1 


Poison used. 








25 170 1 41 1 19 | 458^ 


69 1 


44 


629^ | 


58 | 241 | 59 ] 19 1 209^ 


3i 1 


77 


450^ 1 


Bordeaux mixture used. 








33 


122 


30 


8 


74 


1 1 


4i 


196 


50 


289 


70 


30 


622 


89 


80 


911 



Per 

cent. 



41 

26 
33 



26 

74 

58 
42 



18 
82 



Six orchards were sprayed with lime, salt and sulfur for the San 
Jose scale. One of these did not have any of the scale within about 
ten miles, but the owner was afraid it might come. A few young orchards 
were sprayed with kerosene emulsion for aphids. 

Manv of the owners of these small orchards have used Bordeaux mix- 
ture at some time or other, and because one careless application did not 
keep the apples entirely free from fungus have concluded that the copper 
sulfate was of no value. Some even cite the effects of spraying with 
Paris green and lime as evidence that spraying does not affect the fungus. 
The failure of Paris green to kill the aphids, which were quite bad in 
1903, is also cited to show the futility of spraying. ( )f course those 
who conduct apple-growing on a good business basis are not among 
these.* 



*There are three general classes of sprays: 1. Poisons. 2. Sprays that kill insects 
by contact. 3. Fungicides. 

The insects that chew are the only orchard enemies that we can expect to kill 
with Paris green, arsenic or other poisons of this nature. The lice, San Jose scale 



292 Bulletin 226. 

When is the best time to spray? — The number of spray ings and the 
time to give them must be determined by the season and the objects for 
which a man is spraying. But many of the enemies, like the apple-scab, 
must be treated before they appear. The time of attack by this fungus 
varies to some extent in different years. (See page 335 for a discussion 
of the fungus.) In the 564 orchards examined in Orleans county in 
1904 it was found that those apples that were not sprayed immediately 
after blossoming were invariably scabby, regardless of the earlier and 
later sprayings. To keep the fruit in the best condition more sprayings 
were needed, but this was by far the most important application. If there 
is much rain during the blossoming period and for two to three weeks 
following more sprayings will, of course, be necessary than in a dry season. 
No hard and fast rules can be given, but unless some special enemy 
threatens the crop the best times will be about as follows : 

If three sprayings are given, one just before blossoming, one immedi- 
ately after blossoming, and one from ten to fourteen days later, will gen- 
erally give the best results. If two are given, omit the first or third. 
The second and third are the important ones for the codlin-moth. If 
only one spraying is given it will usually do the most good if applied 
immediately after blossoming. For the bud-moth and case-bearer a 
spraying is needed just as the leaf buds begin to open. 

Do not expect too much from one spraying. If you give three thorough 
applications you will, under ordinary conditions, have a right to expect 
clean fruit. 

Some years, as in 1903, good fruit is grown without spraying; but these 
years can not be foretold. If we wait till the fungus shows, it is too late 
to spray. The most successful men spray every year. They consider 
spraying as insurance. They spray even if there is no crop, for they 

and other insects that suck their food, are not hurt by poisons for the very simple 
reason that they can not eat poison. We would not expect to kill a mosquito by 
putting poison on the hand and letting him suck the blood from under it — his food, 
the blood, is not poisoned. These insects feed in a similar manner. They suck the 
juices from the plant and do not take any material from the surface. They must 
be killed by kerosene; whale oil soap; lime, salt and sulfur, or by some other 
spray that kills by contact. Only those which are hit by the spray are killed. 

The various fungi are plants. We might call them weeds that have chosen to 
grow on the apple rather than on the ground. They can not eat Paris green nor are 
they killed by kerosene and such sprays. For them some fungicide, as Bordeaux 
mixture, must be used. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 293 

consider that good, clean foliage is necessary in order to form the next 
year's fruit-buds and in order to store up food for the next year's crop. 

Winter treatment for apple-scab. — Quite a number of farmers are con- 
sidering the advisability of spraying for the scab before the buds open. 
This treatment will not take the place of later applications. If one gives 
it he should do so with the understanding that it is in addition to the later 
sprayings, and not a substitute for them. 

" When these are made the winter treatment does not bring sufficient 
additional benefit to justify the additional expense of making it against 
the scab alone, but it may pay when directed also against the canker 
disease and combined with some application which must be made against 
insects such as case-bearers or bud-moth. 

" It is known that the scab lives during the winter on the fallen leaves 
and in. the spring produces spores by means of which it spreads to the 
new foliage. Probably it may exist during winter to some extent 011 the 
bark of young twigs also. Granting that this is the case and that a large 
part of the fungus on the tree is killed by winter treatment, which is 
improbable, it is evident that when the new foliage appears it must be 
covered with some fungicide to protect it from the spores produced on 
the fallen leaves. * * *" * 

Method of applying the spray. — In order to do effective spraying there 
must be plenty of power back of the pump. Good work is sometimes 
done with hand pumps, but the tops of large trees are not often well 
sprayed, nor is the work usually as well done with these machines as 
when power sprayers are used. The power sprayer is rapidly displacing 
the hand pump. 

Many orchardists go through the orchard twice for each spraying — ■ 
always spraying with the wind. The first time through may be done at 
the most convenient opportunity. For the second wait till the wind has 
reversed. Three sprayings therefore require six trips through the 
orchard. This method secures thorough spraying for each side of the tree. 

Russeting of the fruit. — A sound and perfect fruit sometimes shows 
areas where the skin is reddish brown and rough. This is commonly 
attributed to too strong a spray. It is frequently caused in that way. 
but in 1903 and 1904 apples in many unsprayed orchards were russeted. 
It is caused by any irritation of the skin of the fruit. This is caused by 
too strong a spray, by late frosts that hurt the skin of the young apple. 



*Bulletin 170, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y 



294 Bulletin 226. 

or by anything- else that irritates the skin. To prevent injury from the 
Bordeaux mixture plenty of lime must be used. Four pounds of blue 
vitriol to fifty gallons of water is sufficient for the later sprayings. This 
lessens the danger of russeting and seems to be effective in preventing 
the scab fungus. Six pounds to fifty gallons of water are ordinarily used 
for the first spraying. 

Damage to foliage from spraying. — The foliage is sometimes burnt by 
too strong a spray. This is particularly likely to occur in rainy weather. 
However, most of the spots on the leaves that are attributed to the spray 
arc not due to the spray, but to fungi. (See page 340.) 

Professor G. W. Cavanaugh gives the following suggestions about 
spraying in rainy weather : 

" In the preparation of Bordeaux mixture, which is made from a solu- 
tion of blue vitriol and lime, there is a definite chemical union brought 
about between the copper of the vitriol and the lime. In order that this 
union may occur, the lime must be in a water-slaked condition, chemically 
known as calcium hydroxide. Should the lime be air-slaked, i. e. in the 
form of carbonate of lime, this chemical union with the copper does not 
take place. The action of the carbonic acid of the air on water-slaked 
lime is to change the lime to the air-slaked form. 

" The chemical union between the lime and the copper in the Bordeaux 
mixture is not a very stable one. In fact, it is so weak that the carbonic 
acid of the air can, under certain conditions, break up the union and 
change even that lime which was combined with the copper into air- 
slaked lime. This, of necessity, frees the copper and puts it in a condi- 
tion similar to that where an insufficient amount of lime is used in the 
orignal mixture. This action of the carbonic acid of the air is facilitated 
if the mixture remains moist for a considerable time on the foliage. The 
result of this is a burning of the leaves by the free copper sulfate. When 
the mixture dries on the trees this action of the gas is so much retarded 
that no injurious results have ever been noticed. It therefore seems a 
wise precaution, during a wet season at least, to use more lime than the 
formula ordinarily calls for." 



CHAPTER VI. 

Renovating an Apple Orchard in Western New York. 

by christian bues. 

With the increase of our knowledge of the " how " of apple-production 
comes naturally a greater interest in the apple business. Out of a few 
apple-trees around the house has grown the commercial orchard. The 
manager of a large orchard enters the open market. He learns the value 
of business methods. He looks for opportunities in the business of apple- 
production. To plant young trees and nurse them into bearing age is a 
long-term investment. It should be profitable ultimately. But how shall 
he find an outlet for his energies while his trees are growing; how 
shall he improve his trade ; in short, where is the immediate opportunity 
for business? 

There are thousands of acres of apple orchards of bearing age in 
Western New York which are not giving the revenue that they ought to 
give. Man>- of these can be bought at a reasonable price. If the trees 
are in a fairly good state of health the renovation of such orchards may 
be profitable. YYe have heard a great deal during the last few years about 
this feature of fruit-raising. What are the actual facts? A concrete 
example will illustrate better than any amount of theory. 

In 1896 Mr. George Pettit bought a " run down " farm at Kenyon- 
ville, Orleans county, N. Y. The farm was neglected. Therefore the 
price paid was not high. Fifty-four acres were bought for $2,200. On 
the farm was an apple orchard of eleven acres, two acres of which had 
been drowned out. literally killed by standing water, when an outlet could 
be found not more than fifty yards away into the steep gorge of Oak 
Orchard creek. This left nine acres of orchard with which to work. 
The trees had been planted in the spring of 1864. i. e. they were thirty-two 
years old and should have been just entering into their prime of 
production. 

The soil on which this orchard stands is Miami silt loam. (See page 
317.) On the remaining nine acres the drainage was not perfect. 
Because of lack of care the trees were older than their actual age would 
indicate. Pruning and feeding had been sadly neglected, and canker was 
rapidly unfitting many limbs for the bearing of a crop. Mr. Pettit tells 
me that it was in about as bad a state as regards care as it could 
possibly be. 

295 



296 Bulletin 226. 

The problem of renovation was undertaken with vigor. The water was 
drained off. the land was plowed, and thus the soil brought into such a 
condition that the plant-food would be available. The trees were freed 
of dead wood, the worst canker-diseased limbs removed, and the whole 
was disinfected by the liberal use of Bordeaux mixture and arsenic. 
Plant-food was supplied to produce the most essential crop — new wood. 
The following, tabulates the cultural method : 

1896. Orchard was in sod; the grass was mowed. 

1897. Orchard was plowed and beans were grown. 

1898. Orchard was manured and beans grown again, followed by crim- 

son clover. 

1899. Orchard was manured and crimson clover plowed under. 
1900-1904. Orchard has been manured every year and buckwheat is 

grown, to be rolled down toward ripening time of the fruit. 

During the last three years every tree in the orchard received each year 
one-quarter of a load of manure, to which was added in 1904 for each 
tree 12 pounds of a good commercial fertilizer containing 8 per cent 
potash and 10 per cent phosphoric acid. 

Spraying has always been faithfully done, crop or no crop ; for Mr. Pettit 
knows that he must have a healthy vigorous tree before he can obtain a 
profitable crop. Here is the spraying program of the season of 1904: 

First spray : When blossom buds began to swell. 

Second spray : As soon as the blossoms dropped. 

Third spray : About two weeks after second spray. 

Fourth spray : A partial spray July 25. This had no apparent effect. 

The spray used was Bordeaux mixture and Paris green, slightly 
decreasing the amount of blue vitriol with each successive spraying. 

This orchard may well be called a " rejuvenated " orchard, for hardly 
any of the old tree-tops exist now. The Kings, Greenings and Russets 
have grown entirely new tops in the course of the eight years during 
which Mr. Pettit has handled the trees, and the Baldwins are doing so, 
although at a slower rate. I remember one particular Spitzenburg tree 
which tells the story of many hardships. By continued spraying and 
generous feeding the many old cankers are nearly overgrown by new 
wood, and a new top has been produced which looks vigorous and 
healthy and ready to do business for many years to come. 

Now if we want to renovate orchards for business, how does the 
account of this orchard balance? Is it worth while to borrow money in 
order to invest it in orchard renovation? Mr. Pettit kindly placed at my 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 297 

disposal an itemized account for the season of 1904. The price charged 
for team and machinery is large enough to allow for " wear and tear." 
To the debit should be added interest on capital invested. Every hour 
of work done in the orchard by the proprietor or by his men has been 
charged to it. 

Apple orchard. Apple orchard. 

1904. . Debit. 1904. Credit. 

June To 8 days' hauling and By 1,765 barrels of apples, No. 1, at 

spreading manure, at $1.50 $-,647 5° 

$1.50 $•- 00 By 75 barrels of apples, No. 2, 

To 3 days' teams for haul- at $1 "5 00 

ing, at $2 6 00 — 

To 80 loads of manure, 

at $1.50 120 00 

To lYz tons commercial 

fertilizer, at $20 30 00 

To 2 days' pruning, at $2 . 4 00 

To 3 days' hauling brush. 5 00 

To 6 days' work, spraying, 

3 men and team, at $7. 42 00 

To 1 day dragging with 3 

horses . 4 00 

To 1 day dragging with 2 

horses 3 00 

To 2 days' spreading fer- 
tilizers 4 00 

To 1 day dragging with 3 

horses 4 00 

To 1 day hoeing around 

trees 1 50 

To 1 day with team 3 00 

To 1 day cleaning out 

ditches 1 50 

To iVz days' cultivating, 

at $4 6 00 

June 20. To 3^2 days' spraying, at 

$7 ^4 50 

To 1 day getting material. 3 00 

To 30 lbs. Paris green, at 

1 8c 5 40 

To 400 lbs. blue vitriol, at 

5%c 23 00 

To 4 barrels of lime, at 

$1.25 5 00 

To 1 pair of pruning 

shears 2 00 

July 6. To 1 day of dragging.... 3 00 
To V2 day sowing buck- 
wheat 1 00 

25. To spraying 3 hours, at 

70c 2 10 

To spraying mixture 70 

To 7 bushels buckwheat 

seed, at 75c 525 

Aug. 13. To 4 hours' breaking buck- 
wheat 1 60 

16. To dragging down buck- 

wheat, 1 horse 2 00 

17. To dragging down buck- 

wheat, 1 horse 2 00 

18. To propping trees, 2 men 

and team 3 00 

2j. To propping trees, 2 men 

2V 2 days 10 00 

To 1,840 empty barrels, at 

36c 662 40 

To harvesting 1,840 bar- 
rels of fruit and hauling 
to the railroad, at 25c. .. 460 00 

Balance 1,260 55 

$2,722 50 $2,722 50 



Thus our account for this year gives a net profit above expenses of 
$1,260.55. To do justice to the orchard it is fair to state that at the date 



2y8 Bulletin 226. 

when the figures were received there remained about 1,300 bushels of 
apples in the orchard which might have been sold as evaporating stock 
had not the evaporators been rilled to their utmost capacity. 

How do the crops taken from the orchard compare with the original 
investment? It is not possible to give these figures net, as an itemized 
expense account is not available. The gross returns from the orchard are : 
1896 $250 00 

l< &97 12 00 

1898 800 00 

J 899 200 00 

19 00 1,200 00 

!9 01 300 00 

19 02 2,000 00 

i9°3 1,400 00 

i9°4 2,722 50 



It will be seen that there is a gradual general increase in the amount 
of the crop. Naturally there exists a corresponding increase in the cost 
of production and marketing. 

In a considerable percentage of New York orchards the renovating 
process has begun. It can not be done according to a fixed schedule. 
Conditions in one orchard are not often the same as in another. How- 
ever, the experiences of other men and close observation will soon lead 
one in the right direction. Two things are most needed. The first is 
the consideration of the orchard as a business proposition, with which 
we enter into an account and from which we want to exact a fair profit. 
We may have to wait a few years for the returns, but we must look for 
ultimate profits. The usual experience is that vigorously renovated 
orchards begin to give fair returns in about three years, but this depends 
on the condition of the trees and the manner of treatment. The second 
important factor is: the man who takes charge of the orchard should 
know and love an apple-tree. He should be able to put himself into its 
position and to realize the various influences which this or that line of 
treatment would have upon a living organism. Only then can he under- 
stand such things as why a soil needs draining and why parasites 
should be kept off. It is not so much any particular kind of soil that 
produces the apple, or any special brand of fertilizer, or any individual 
spraying mixture. The essential thing is the crop of thought raised in 
the well-cultivated mind of a nature-loving, m-an;: 



CHAPTER VII. 
Number of Trees Per Acre and Distance Between Trees. 

The trees arc planted too close together. — One of the greatest enemies 
of the apple orchard in Wayne comity, as in most other apple-growing 
regions, is the apple-tree. When the greater part of the orchards were 
planted, about forty years ago, there was a universal tendency to plant 
too closely. On 43 per cent of the area planted before 1880 the trees 
are 30 x 30 feet or less; 82 per cent are 35 x 35 feet or less. Only 18 
per cent are over 35 x 35 feet; and a part of these were planted more 
closely but have been thinned. (See table 23.) 



Table 23. 
Distance between trees. 



DISTANCE APART, 



Planted before iS 



Planted since 1879. 



Average 
no. trees 
per acre. 



Not over 25x25 It . . 

26x26 to 30x30 

31x31 to 35x35 

36x36 to 40x40 

41x41 to 50x50 



52 

38 

27 



No. 
orchards. 



55 
198 

143 

73 



No. 
acres. 



151^ 
1165^ 
1195 

534.^ 



Per 

cent. 



Average N 

no. trees orchards 
per acre. 



70 

51 

37 
27 
19 



27 

24 

3i 

6 



No. 
acres. 



Per 

cent 



4 


1 


118K 


18 


148^ 


22 


328 


50 


61 


9 



Average number of trees per acre. 
Average distance apart 



Planted 
before i83o. 



Planted 
since 1879. 



43-6 
31.6 



33 ■ 2 

30--' 



41.8 
32.3 



A comparison with the recent plantings shows that many growers have 
learned not to plant so closely. Nearly two-thirds of the area set since 
1879 has the trees 35 x 35 feet or over, the average distance being 36.2 
feet or 2,^.2 trees per acre, as compared with a distance of 31.6 feet and 
43.6 trees for the older orchards. Some growers have not yet learned 
the lesson, and need to have their attention called to it. Forty by forty 
feet is close enough for nearly all varieties. The Duchess, Wealthy and 
a few other varieties might perhaps be planted a little closer. Mature 
Baldwin and Greening trees should be at least 40 x 40 feet apart. 

LOFG. " 



300 Bulletin 226. 

About one-fourth of the orchards in Walworth township were planted 
on the quincunx system with the rows 20 feet apart and the trees 40 feet 
apart in the row. This makes the trees in squares 28.4 x 28.4 feet, 
cornerwise of the field. Some nurserymen recommended this system 
with the idea of removing every other row, so as to leave the trees 40 x 40 
feet. A few growers did this before much damage had been done by 
crowding, and may have secured enough fruit from the extra trees to 
pay for the increased labor which these trees necessitated. 

Outside of Walworth this system was much less used, but the trees 
averaged almost the same distance apart. Rather than blame the nursery- 
men who recommended the thinning system, as some have done, we 
should give them credit for being better informed than most persons of 
that time, for they recognized that mature trees would need to be 40 x 40 
feet. Other persons planted equally close without having any idea that a 
part would need to be cut out. 

This system may be all right if carried out, but it is certainly not to 
be recommended to the general public. Few people have the courage to 
cut down good, thrifty trees. If they do thin them it is usually not done 
until the trees have been greatly damaged — all the lower limbs killed. 
It will be better for most persons to leave out half the trees and raise 
crops in the orchard for a few more years, or plant some short-lived fruit 
like peach-trees, that will die before the apple-trees need the room. 

Effect of close planting on yield and health. — The more trees per acre 
the less the yield. The average yield for four years of orchards where 
the trees are not over 30 x 30 feet apart is 186 bushels ; for those over 
30 x 30 feet but not over 35 x 35 feet, 222 bushels ; for those over 35 x 35 
feet, 229 bushels. (See table 24.) 

The question is still more important than these figures indicate. In 
many orchards the trees are being ruined because they are so close 
together. In Orleans county more growers have removed half the trees, 
but few in Wayne county have yet done so, and more attention needs 
to be given to the question. Farmers usually fail to notice what is hap- 
pening until the trees have been greatly damaged. The decrease in yield 
does not call attention to the trouble till it is too late. When the tops 
begin to meet so as to shut out the light from the lower limbs it is time 
to cut out half the trees. (See Fig. 59.) If this is not done the lower 
limbs first bear inferior fruit, then no fruit, and finally die. The changes 
take place so gradually that the owner usually fails to realize what is 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 301 



Table 24. 
Distance apart and yield in bushels. Trees set before 1880. 



DISTANCE APART. 



1900. 
Not over 30x30 feet 
31x31 to 35x35 feet. 
36x36 to 40x40 feet. . 

1 901. 
Not over 30x30 feet. 
31x31 to 35x35 feet . 
36x36 to 40x40 feet . 

1902. 
Not over 30x30 feet. 
31x31 to 35x35 feet . 
36x36 to 40x40 feet . 

1903. 
Not over 30x30 feet. 
31x31 to 35x35 feet . 
36x36 to 40x40 feet . 



Walworth. 



No. or- 
chards. 



78 
32 

[8 



83 
41 
33 



154 
77 
50 



65 
29 
27 



285 % 

i40'/ 2 

93 



Aver- 
age 
yield. 



282 
389 
332 



310% 38 

206 60 



192 



S3&X 

3SOH 

33$y 2 



274 % 
137 

254/2 



92 



229 
249 
256 



252 
309 
302 



Remainder of County. 



No. or- 
chards. 



22 
18 

6 



23 
21 



44 
34 
11 



23 

12 

5 



305 Yz 

217V2 

8oy 2 



334 Yi 

255^ 



Aver- 
age 
yield. 



Entire County. 



No. or- 
chards. 



100^ 81 



604^ 
682^ 
U5^ 



342^ 
II2# 

74^ 



231 

264 
224 



30 
83 



212 
212 
220 



215 
224 
281 



100 
50 
24 

106 
62 
4i 



198 

in 

61 



5i 
32 



Acres. 



Aver- 
age 
yield. 



59<># 

358 

173)4 



64434 

461 

292^ 

116034 
1063 

454 

61634 
249^ 
329 



256 
314 
282 



34 

75 



220 
226 

249 



232 
271 
296 



Four-year average : 

Not over 30 x 30 feet 186 bushels 

31 x 31 to 35 x 35 feet 222 

36 x 36 to 40 x 40 feet 229 

It might seem that the closer plantings would include many old trees, but the 
change in the distance apart has been made largely since 1880. 

happening till some year he finds that instead of an orchard of well- 
rounded apple-trees he has a lot of forest trees with a bouquet of leaves 
at the top. 

In the end the bearing surface becomes the nearly level surface on the 
tops of the trees. This is a very small surface when compared with a 
succession of well-rounded tops. (See frontispiece.) If trees are 30 x 30 
feet and are left till they interfere so as to kill the lower limbs, the bearing 
surface approaches the level surface on the top of the trees. Each tree 
approaches 900 square feet of exposure to sunlight, or bearing surface ; 
or two trees approach 1,800 square feet. This is what was done in the 
orchard shown in Fig. 60. The owner of this orchard started to cut out 
half the trees about ten years ago. He cut down one tree, but it seemed 
to make such a big hole that he decided to prune them instead. The 



302 



Bulletin 226. 




An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 303 



figure shows the result. Suppose half of the trees had been cut out at 
the proper time, they would then be 42.4 x 42.4 feet. This was done 
by Mr. Albert Woods in the orchard shown in Fig - . 61. These trees 
average about 32 feet high and have a spread of about 40 feet. The area 
of the surface of a well-rounded tree 32 feet high and having a spread 
of 40 feet is about 4,000 square feet. Trees of this size still lack 2.4 feet 
of meeting, and 30 
per cent of the surface 
of the ground is ex- 
posed to light — none 
too much. In other 
words they are a 
reasonable dista net- 
apart, but the one 
tree has at least twice 
as much bearing sur- 
face as the two trees 
in the former orchard. 
This calculation as- 
sumes the tree to 
have a regular form 
and is, of course, 
hypothetical, but it 
clearly indicates that 
there are two reasons 
why trees that are 
planted too closely do 
not bear as much as 
do those that have 
more room : ( 1 ) They 
are not as healthy. 
(2) They do not have as much bearing surface. 

Trees that are too close together furnish favorable conditions for fungi 
and insects ; they are hard to spray ; the apples are more difficult to pick 
and are of poorer color and quality. Probably the most serious result is 
an indirect effect of the. death of the lower limbs. Trees are left until the 
large lower limbs die for want of light. These are then removed and 
the wounds are too large to heal. Tn time they cause the trunk to 
decay. (See Fig. 62.) 




Fig. 60. — A poor system of pruning. The best bearing 
zvood removed and the trees almost ruined rather than 
cut out half of them. (Compare with Fig. 61.) 



3°4 



Bulletin 226. 




An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 305 



Top-grafting or pruning every other row.- 



half of the trees a few years before cutting them out. 



Some men have top-grafted 
Most of those 

who have tried this would not do so again. It is some expense to do 
the grafting, and by the time the grafts are ready to bear well it is about 
time to cut the trees down. Some have cut back the tops of the trees 
to be removed, leaving the center part to bear a few years before remov- 
ing the tree. This seems to have paid in some cases, but has not always 
been satisfactory. Too much must not be expected of any such devices, 
for they do not relieve the 
condition under ground. The 
roots interfere before the tops 
do. When the tops begin to 
interfere it is high time to 
remove half the trees. 

How to thin. — If the trees 
are planted in squares the best 
way to thin is to cut out every 
other tree in each row. This 
is done by cutting out every 
other row diagonally. It 
leaves the trees in squares 
cornerwise of the field. (See 
Fig. 63.) 

It is interesting to note 
what removing half the trees 
would mean. Persons some- 
times think that doing so in 
an orchard that is 25 x 25 
feet would leave the remainder 
50 x 50 feet. As a matter of 
fact they would be in squares 
of 35.3 x 35.3 feet, when viewed from the corners of the field ; if 30 x 30 
feet, and half removed, the remainder would stand 42.4 x 42.4 feet; if 
33 x 7,3 feet, and half removed, they would be 46.7 x 46.7 feet. None of 
these distances is too great for large, mature trees. If 35 x 35 feet, and 
half removed, they would be 49.5 x 49.5 feet. Large Baldwin trees can 
make good use of this much room. 

One of the problems to be met in thinning is that, if every other tree is 
removed regularly, there will be some places where the tree to be cut out 




Fig. 62. — The large lower branches die because 
the trees are too close. The limbs are then 
re moved, and the next stage is a decayed 
trunk. Notice the holes in the second tree 
on the left. 



306 Bulletin 226. 

is better than the one to be left ; or it may occur that the one which should 
be left is missing. Will it pay to leave a tree that would otherwise be 
removed if it comes next to a vacant place? This question must be 



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LtGEN D 

--aftr- Trees Ffenooi^ed 
_^-^ Treea Left Standing 
m Tre-e s Missing 



Fir,. 63. — Diagram shozving half the trees removed. The doited lines show that 
the trees remaining are in squares cornerzvise of the field. 

answered as each case arises, but it is well to remember that if the tree 
is left it will damage one side of three other trees. 

Before cutting out the trees it will pay to make a map of the orchard 
and locate the vacant spaces and poor trees, and so determine which way 
of cutting will include the greatest number of these. In Fig. 63 the rows 



Ax Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 307 

bb, dd, ff, etc., or the rows cc, cc, gg, etc., may be removed. Sometimes 
it will make a difference of several trees which is done. Suppose that 
the trees marked m are poor trees or missing; then by removing rows 
bb, dd, etc., five of these will be included. If the other set of rows are 
removed only two will be included, a gain of three trees by the former 
method — enough to much more than pay for the trouble of making 
the map. 

It requires courage to go into a fine apple orchard, one that has been 
watched over for years, and cut out good, healthy trees. But in many 
orchards the time has come when a choice must be made between two 
poor trees or one good one. If one has definitely made up his mind that 
his trees are crowding, perhaps the best way to thin them is to do as the 
owner of a fine Baldwin orchard of twenty acres did. He decided which 
rows should be removed. Then, to be sure that he would not repent and 
have some of the trees left, he went away on a two weeks' visit while 
the boys did the work. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Age of the Orchards. 

Date of planting. — Few of the old orchards are now owned by the men 
who set them, or even by the descendants of these men. It is, therefore, 
difficult to get the exact age in all cases, but the reports are probably 
accurate enough to give reliable conclusions. 

Most of the trees set before 1850 were for the purpose of supplying 
the family wants. About this time growers began to set commercial 
orchards. The majority were set between i860 and 1875. The number 
planted decreased till 1895. Since then there has been a gradual increase. 
(See table 25.) 

The young orchards are nearly all in the north part of the county. 
Very few trees have been set in the south part during the last twenty-five 
years. (Some discussion of the reason for this will be found on page 259.) 



Table 25. 

Number of acres planted during each five-year period. The table includes oidy 
those orchards that are still living. Sonic of the earlier plantings have disap- 
peared. 



DATE OF PLANTING. 



Before 1840 

1840-49 (10 years) . 

1850-54 

1855-59 

1860-64 

1865-69 

1870-74 

1875-79 

1880-84 

1885-89 

1890-94 

1895-1903 (8 years) 



No. of orchards. 



18 

33 
42 

45 

153 

9i 

67 

43 
22 
12 
19 
47 



No. of acres. 



73 

i6 7 y 2 

167 

298^ 

810X 

717 

450 

380^ 

194 

54 
377 



Per cent. 



2 

4^ 
4 l A 
8 
22 

19 
12 
10 

5 
2 

10 



Yield at different ages. — The fact that apples are the chief source of 
income for so many farmers, and that practically every one considers 
them to be a paying crop, would seem to raise the question of why more 
orchards are not planted. The great deterrent to such planting is the 
long time that one must wait for returns. With the usual treatment of 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 309 

Baldwin and Greening trees they do not begin to be profitable for nearly 
twenty years. A much less profitable crop that gives returns the first 
year can therefore compete with apples. 

If well cared for, the trees will usually pay sooner. But the very fact 
that it is so long before a revenue is secured causes the' owner to neglect 
the trees, so that the normal period is increased. The young orchard 
usuallv takes its place as a field in the crop rotation, and is therefore 
in sod or small grain half the time. One frequently sees young orchards 
in wheat-fields or hay-fields. " The short growth, knotty bodies and 
yellow leaves tell the story of shallow roots, dry soil, borers, and all the 
ills which everv farmer who follows such methods deserves to have 




Fig. 6.1. — Diagram showing the yield in bushels at different ages. 



fastened to his trees."* Grain and hay should never be grown in a young 
orchard. The first thing to grow is an apple-tree. Tilled crops are the 
only ones that can be grown without damaging the trees and lengthening 
the period before they are ready to bear. (See Figs. 41, 42 and 43.) 

Many of the orchards now being set are composed of Ben Davis, 
Hubbardston, Duchess and other early-bearing varieties, but Baldwin and 
Greening still hold a place. 

*Cornell Bulletin 72. 



3io 



Bulletin 226. 



It is a long time to wait for Baldwins and Greenings to begin to bear, 
but they make up for this delay by continuing to be profitable for many 
years. The life of an apple-tree has commonly been spoken of as about 
forty to fifty years, but the maximum yield in Wayne county is not 
reached till forty-four years from the time of planting. (See table 26 
and Fig. 64.) After this there is a gradual decrease. Several orchards 

set before 1820 are 
still profitable. With 
the better care that 
trees are now receiv- 
ing, their age of max- 
imum yield will 
doubtless be increased. 
It is probable that the 
returns for good 
treatment will be even 
more marked in pro- 
longing the life of the 
orchard than in in- 
creasing the annual 
yield. (See Fig. 65.) 
There are very few 
45-year-old trees that 
have not seen some 
very rough treatment. 
They have gone a 
number of years with- 
out any fertilization 
or tillage. The canker- 
worm has feasted on 
them; cattle have 
damaged them. They 
have gone years without pruning, or, worse, have had large limbs cut 
off in such a way that the wounds can not heal. Some orchards of 
this age are composed of sound, thrifty trees that give promise of an 
increased yield for some years to come. 

Will it pay to plant young orchards? — From the ages at which the 
yields begin to decrease it would seem that in about twenty years a large 




Fig. 65. — Ninety-six years old and still young. This 
orchard contains about 145 of the original 270 trees 
set 96 years ago. Orchard of J. A. Kuck, Kuckville, 
Orleans county. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 311 

part of the present orchards would cease to be profitable. It must be 
remembered that table 26 includes only those orchards that have survived. 
Many orchards set sixty-five years ago have entirely disappeared. 



Table 26. 
Age and yield per acre in bushels. 



1900. 



1901. 



DATE OF PLANTING. 



Before 1840 
1840-49. . . . 
1850-54.... 

1855-59 

1 860-64 .... 
1865-69... 
1870-74.. .. 
1875-79.. ■ 
1880-84.. • 
1885-89.... 
1890-95 



No. 

orchards. 



4 

I 

12 

9 

54 
4i 
26 
12 

9 

1 

4 



No. acres. 



10 

10 

43 

33 
278J4: 
366 
238 

8iy 2 
67 

5 

IS 



Vield. 



215 
200 

245 
368 

347 
293 
219 

255 

164 

80 

50 



No. 
orchards. 



7 

6 

13 

17 

63 

44 

34 

15 

9 

1 

4 



No. acres. 



24/2 

37 

47 

84^ 
360^ 
465 
278/2 
101 

69 
5 

14 



Yield. 



83 
38 
34 
67 
57 
55 
61 

64 

6 

o 

36 



Table 26 — Concluded. 



DATE OF 
PLANTING. 



Before 1840 
1840-49. . . . 

1850-54.... 
1855-59 •••• 

1860-64. . . . 

1865-69.... 
1870-74.... 

I 875-79 •••■ 
1880-84.... 
1885-89.... 
1890-95 — 



No. 
orchards. 



14 

17 

38 

34 

115 

74 

5i 

25 

9 

6 

10 



1902. 



No. 
acres. 



60 

93 A 
154 

255^ 
61234: 

652 
380^ 
U8% 
120 
26 

2l l A 



Yield. 



175 
186 
220 
28l 
232 
212 
222 
204 
133 
42 
29 



No. 
orchards. 



I 
3 

13 
12 

54 
25 
23 
11 

7 
1 
1 



1903. 



No. 
acres. 



18 

48^ 
i6i>< 
284^ 
274^ 
211A 

45^ 

47^ 

10 

10 



Yield. 



210 
267 
224 
312 
236 
238 
261 
286 

155 
140 
100 



Four-Year 

Average. 



Aver- 
age 
age. 



64 
59 
49. 
44 
39 
34 
29 
24 

19 

14 

9 



Yield. 



171 

173 
l8l 

257 
2l8 
200 
191 
202 
115 

66 

54 



The tabulation for each division of the county gives the maximum yield at this 
same age — 44 years. 



312 



Bulletin 226. 



It is difficult to tell just how much effect the better care will have in pro- 
longing the life of the trees, but it is quite certain that the well-cared-for 
orchards will continue to pay much longer than the average. But over 
half the orchards are not well cared for, and it is perfectly reasonable to 
suppose that many of these neglected ones will be gone in twenty years. 
The advisability of planting more orchards to take the place of these old 
ones is therefore worth considering. More immediate profit would come 
from the rejuvenation of the old orchard. 



CHAPTER IX. 
Soils and Soil Problems. 



Topography. 

Topographical regions.— Wayne county is divided into two distinct 
topographical regions: a very hilly or drumlin region, and a region of 
gently rolling land ; but each of these regions has a subdivision, so that 
we have four divisions (see Fig. 66) : 

(i) A drumlin area. 

(2) A region where 
the d r u m 1 i n s were 
once wholly or par- 
tially submerged. 

(3) A gently rolling 
glaciated area. 

(4) An area of roll- 
ing land that was 
formerly the old lake 
bed. 

The elevations 
above sea level vary 
from 246 feet, the 
level of the lake, to 
670 feet, the top of 
the highest hill. 

During the glacial period the lake level was about 440 feet above sea level, 
or about the height of the " ridge ". This ridge was a sand-bar or lake 
shore line. The present sand-bar running across Sodus Bay probably 
appears somewhat as the ridge appeared during this period. (See Fig. 
141.) This ridge is more or less continuous from Sodus Bay to Buffalo. 
It is a gravel formation ten to thirty feet high and about four rods wide 
on top. It makes a natural roadway and has always been used for that 
purpose. The Rochester and Sodus Bay trolley line, built on this nature- 
graded roadbed, has furnished a very important supplement to the rail- 
roads in marketing the fruit of the northern part of the county. 

During the glacial period the entire county was covered with a thick 
mass of ice. This ice was graduallv moved southward, and carried with it 




~}tff"\^fc&j''v^- 



Fig. 66. — Topographical regions. I. Drumlin area. II. 
Region where the drumlins iverc once wholly or 
partially covered by the lake. III. Gently rolling 
glaciated area. IV . Old lake bed. 



313 



3H 



Bulletin 226. 



the stony material that now makes up the soil of the south part of the 
county. This material was deposited in the long hills, or drumlins, and in 
the sheet of stony material that occurs between them. The depth of this 
covering of glacial drift varies from a few feet to about one hundred and 
seventy-five feet. In many places between the hills the bed-rock is very 
close to the surface, what soil there is having been largely brought from 
the hills by the rains. In some places the bed-rock is still uncovered. 
Many of the small streams that drain the area run on this rock. In order 
to drain some of the lower land, the rock must be blasted out in order 
to deepen the streams. 

The drumlin area. — About two-thirds of the county is covered with a 
succession of the long north and south hills or drumlins. (See page 364.) 




Fig. 67. — Near Sodus Bay. A sandy soil. This was formerly the old lake bed. 
The hills in the foreground have been caused by subsequent erosion. 

These hills have a slightly northwest and southeast direction. They are 
from one-fourth of a mile to three miles long — usually a little over a 
mile — and are about one-fourth as wide as long. Their tops are from 
450 to 670 feet above sea level, and rise from 75 to 175 feet above the 
valleys. These heights for such narrow hills give very steep east and 
west slopes. The north and south slopes occupy comparatively little of 
the area. The former are abrupt, the latter more gentle. The greater 
part of the elevated land, therefore, consists of very steep east and west 
slopes. The orchards are situated on these slopes and on some of the 
rolling land of lower levels. The soil type of the hills and the higher 
part of the lower land is the Miami stony loam. (See page 316.) 

The drumlin area that was once partly submerged. — In the northeast 
part of the county, east of Sodus Bay, there is a considerable area where 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 315 

the drumlins were once islands or were covered by the lake at the same 
time when the ridge was formed. (See Fig. 67.) The sediment depos- 
ited in the quiet water that filled these lower places formed the Miami 
silt loam (see page 317), which has proved to be an excellent apple soil. 
The higher-lying land is mostly the Miami stony loam and Alton stony 
loam. Areas of Miami fine sand also occur. 

The gently rolling, glaciated area. — Between the ridge and the drum- 
lins of Marion and Walworth townships the soil was mostly removed by 
the glaciers. In many places the rock is so near the surface as to inter- 
fere with the growth of apples. The soil is a good apple soil where deep 
enough and where there is an outlet for the water. 

Area of rolling land thai was once the lake bed. — North of the ridge 
the land was once the old lake bed. The soil is formed from sedimentary 
deposits in the old lake and to some extent from deposits by the glaciers. 
It is now a gently rolling plain with a quite variable soil. (See Fig. 
144.) In many places the drainage is poor, but there are many desir- 
able sites for orchards. The soil types used for apples are the Alton 
stony loam, Miami silt loam and Miami fine sand.* 

Soils. 

The soil types. — The chief apple soils of the county are the Miami 
stony loam, the Miami silt loam and the Alton stony loam. Apples are 
also grown on the Miami fine sand, the Ontario gravelly loam and on a 
phase of the Alton stony loam that has the bed-rock too near the surface. f 



*For a further discussion of the topography, geology and origin of soils, see 
Part II of this report. 

tFor a more extended discussion of soils, see the report of "A Soil Survey of the 
Lyons Area," a reprint from the "' Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1902." 
This gives a discussion of the soils and a soil map of all the county except the west 
tier of townships. It is sent free to all who apply to the Secretary of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. 

This report was not published at the time the orchard survey was made, so that 
the soil classification was independent of the Bureau of Soils, though following the 
same methods. More subdivisions were made in the orchard work, with the idea 
of combining, if the differences were found to be insufficient to warrant the separa- 
tion. The Miami stony loam, Alton stony loam and Miami fine sand were each 
divided into two subtypes. These divisions seem to be entirely unnecessary. One 
subdivision of the Alton stony loam, in which the bed-rock is so near the surface as 
materially to affect the production of apples, is retained as a distinct type. The 
Ontario gravelly loam was mapped by the Bureau of Soils with the Miami stony 
loam and Alton stony loam. This is kept as a distinct type. The smallness of the 



316 Bulletin 226. 

The Miami stony loam is the stony soil that covers the drumlins and 
most of the rolling' land between these hills. It is a light brown loam, 
eight to ten inches deep, containing five to forty per cent of stone and 
gravel. The stones are usually small and well rounded. The subsoil 
is a brownish-yellow, stony loam. The proportion of stone and gravel 
usually increases at greater depths, but the reverse is sometimes true. 
The gravel is sometimes cemented together so as to form a gravel hard- 
pan. This occasionally occurs near enough to the surface to interfere 
with the growth of apple-trees. Table 27 gives a summary of the average 
mechanical analyses of four samples of this soil. 

Table 27. 

Mechanical analyses of the fine earth of Miami stony loam. Average of four 

samples, three of which were taken from the report of the Bureau of Soils. 

Organic matter - 

Fine gravel and coarse sand (2 — 0.5 mm) 

Medium, fine and very fine sand (0.5 — 0.05 mm) 

Silt (0.05 — 0.005 mm) 

Clay (0.005 — 0.0001 mm) 



Soil. 
Per cent. 


Subsoil 
Per cent 


I .96 
6. 

44- 


1. 13 

7- 
46. 


39- 


34- 


11. 


13- 



The Alton stony loam. — This type of soil occurs north of the drumlin 
area. The surface soil, to a depth of seven to ten inches, consists of 
brown sandy or silty loam. The subsoil is a yellowish-brown sandy or 
silty loam. The type contains ten to fifty per cent of stone, which gen- 
erally consists of more angular fragments than those in the Miami stony 
loam. It also contains more. fine sand or silt than that type. South of 
the ridge there are considerable areas of it that contain limestone frag- 
ments. Table 28 gives the averages of three analyses of this type. 

Table 28. 

Mechanical analyses of the tine earth of the Alton stony loam. Average of three 
analyses made by the Bureau of Soils. 



Soil. Subsoil. 

Per cent. Per cent. 



Organic matter 3 

Fine gravel and coarse sand (2 — 0.5 mm) 5 

Medium, fine and very line sand (0.5 — 0.05 mm) 52 

Silt ( o . 05 — o . 005 mm ) 30 

Clay (0.005 — o. 0001 mm) 13 



.61 

4- 

46. 

31. 

19. 



individual areas would make it difficult, if not impossible, to map it separately by 
the Bureau of Soils method. The Miami silt loam (called the Elmira silt loam in 
the Bureau of Soils report, but since changed to Miami silt loam) corresponds 
exactly with one of the classifications made by the writer. In general the soil types 
and the mechanical analyses agree remarkably well for results secured from inde- 
pendent work. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, Mew York. 317 

South of the ridge, in the west part of the county, there are considerable 
areas of the Alton stony loam, where the soil rests on limestone rock 
that is so near the surface as to interfere with the growth of apples. The 
soil is too shallow to admit of good root-growth or to allow good 
drainage. 

The Miami silt loam. — This is a brown or yellowish-brown silt loam, 
eight or ten inches deep, underlaid by brownish-yellow or yellow silty 
loam. This type occurs on the rolling land near the lake and around 
Sodus Bay. (See table 29.) 

Table 29. 

Mechanical analyses of Miami silt loam. Average of four samples, three of which 
were analyzed by the Bureau of Soils. 

Soil. Subsoil. 

Percent. Percent. 

Organic matter 1 . 44 .32 

Fine gravel and coarse sand (2 — 0.5 mm) 1 . 1. 

Medium, fine and very fine sand (0.5 — 0.05 mm) 22. 18. 

Silt Co. 05 — 0.005 mm) 64. 66. 

Clay (0.005 — 0. 0001 mm) 13. 14. 

Miami fine sand. — This type is a light brown sandy loam, eight or ten 
inches deep, underlain by light yellow sand, usually free from stones. 
Its chief occurence is north of the ridge. (See table 30.) 

Table 30. 
Mechanical analyses of the Miami fine sand. Average of three analyses- made by 

the Bureau of Soils. 

Organic matter 

Fine gravel and coarse sand (2 — 0.5 mm) 

Medium, fine and very fine sand (0.5 — 0.05 mm) 

Silt (0.05 — 0.005 mm) 14 

Clay (0.005 — o.oooi mm) 

Ontario gravelly loam. — This is a brown gravel underlain by a light 
brown gravel or gravelly loam. The predominating characteristic is the 
gravel. Most of the gravel is less than one inch in diameter. It occurs 
in small deposits in the Miami stony loam and is the common type along 
the ridge. It is a very open soil — too well drained. Along the ridge 
it is nearly all planted to apples. The deposits of gravel that occur in 
the drumlins are frequently used on the public roads. (See Fig. 69.) 

Average yield on the different soil types. — Table 31 shows the average 
yields on the six different types of soil. The number of orchards on the 
last three types is not large enough to give positive results. The table 



Soil. 


Subsoil. 


'er cent. 


Per cent 


2.15 


O.38 


4- 


3- 


78. 


85. 


r 4- 


9- 


3- 


2 



3i8 



Bulletin 226. 



shows definitely that the Miami stony loam averages better than the Alton 
stony loam and that the soil with the bed-rock near the surface is by far 
the poorest of all. I believe that the four-year average shows the rela- 
tive merits of the soils quite accurately, except that the average for the 
Ontario gravelly loam seems to be a little too high. It is certain, how- 
ever, that this type usually gives a good yield. All previous discussions 
of apple soils, so far as I have been able to determine, would consider 
this a very poor apple soil. 

Table 31. 
Average yield in bushels on different soil types. Trees set before 1SS0. 



SOIL TYPE. 



Miami stony loam 

Alton stony loam 

Alton stony loam (bed rock 

near surface) 

Miami silt loam 

Ontario gravelly loam 

Miami fine sandy loam 





1900. 






1 901. 


No. 
orchards. 


Acres. 


Average 

yield. 


No. 
orchards. 


Acres. 


Il6 


542^ 


287 


159 


834X 


24 


182 


255 


20 


144^ 


8 


35 


2l8 


5 


26 


7 


125 


379 


6 


115 


2 


17 


474 


7 


35'A 


5 


4i 


100 


6 


5i 



Average 
yield. 



57 

33 

7 
99 
73 
93 



Table 31 — Concluded. 



SOIL TYPE. 


1902. 


1903. 


Four- 


No. 
orchards 


Acres. 


Average 
yield. 


No. 
orchards 


Acres. 


Average 
yield. 


average. 


Miami stony loam 

Alton stony loam 

Alton stony loam (bed 
rock near surface) .... 

Miami silt loam 

Ontario gravelly loam. . . 
Miami fine sandy loam . . 


272 

43 

12 
8 

12 
8 


1419^ 

358 

66 
1 29 

63 y 2 
63 


234 
215 

151 
260 

295 

353 


132 
19 

5 
3 
2 

7 


788X 
185 

29^ 
44 
9 
172 


283 
229 

237 
214 
278 
220 


215 
183 

153 
238 
280 
192 



Summary of the soil factor in apple-production. — While the kind of 
soil is important, in this locality, it is evidently not the most important 
factor in apple-production and is not as important as the kind of treatment 
that the soil receives. The kind of care required varies with the soil. The 
Miami silt loam will doubtless produce a good crop with less manure 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 319 

than is required on any of the other types. The Miami stony loam is 
next strongest. The other types require larger applications of manure, 
but give good results when so treated. These latter are more open and 
are more in need of humus. The soil with the bed-rock near the surface 
is entirely unsuited to apples. For the best production of apples, there 
should be at least six feet of well-drained soil in every part of the orchard. 

Drainage. 

The condition of the natural drainage. — In selecting a soil for an 
orchard, more important than chemical or physical composition is the 




Fig. 68.- — In the center of a 35-acre orchard that is on a hill. Several acres have 
been gradually killed and many more damaged by ground water. This land has 
grotvn up to weeds and gives no income. Ii could easily be drained. 

question of drainage. No well-drained soils were found in the county 
that were not producing good crops of apples when properly cared for. 

The majority of the orchards are on fairly well drained land. A large 
number would be benefited by underdrainage, but in some cases the bene- 
fit would not be great enough to pay. Some orchards have been set on 
such wet land that they have entirely failed ; others have one corner 
extending down into a low place where drainage is needed ; others are 
divided by small " draws " that need underdrains. Where the orchards 
are on steep hillsides it might seem as if underdrainage would be 
unnecessary, but there are many places where the seepage water calls for 
drains. In other places the long slopes accumulate such a large volume 



320 



Bulletin 226. 



of surface water that drains are needed. Fig. 68 shows a 35-acre orchard, 
in the center of which are several acres that have been drowned out. This 
orchard is on a high hill and has a fair slope, but it needs drainage. There 
is usually a strip of poorly drained land on each side of the " ridge ". 
Kettle-holes occur occasionally in the north part of the county. In a few 
orchards near the lake shore there are successions of parallel waves of land, 
making a few rods of good soil followed by some that needs drainage. 

In the northeast 
part of the county 
several orchards were 
examined the foliage 
of which was of a red- 
dish hue when viewed 
from a distance. 
Some of the leaves 
were quite red in the 
latter part of August. 
This seemed to be 
due to the lack of 
drainage. It was 
characteristic of foli- 
age in undrained 
places. Several farm- 
ers attributed this to 
a " new insect " that 
had " stung the 
leaves ". 

The Ontario grav- 
elly loam and the 
Miami fine sand drain 
too easily — that is, 
they do not retain enough water. On such soils tillage is particularly 
profitable. A cover-crop or barnyard manure is a necessity. They add 
humus and increase the water-holding capacity of the soil. Tillage and 
humus will make any of these soils good for apples. (See Fig. 69.) 

Losses caused by lack of drainage. — Of the i,773/ / 2 acres of orchard 
land in Walworth, only 182 acres have any kind of underdrainage. Most 
of these have only a stone drain or two in a particularly wet place. A 




Fig. 69. — An excavation showing stratified Ontario 
gravelly loam. Too well drained! 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 321 

few have tile drains. Fifty-four orchards, aggregating 232 acres, are 
reported as in need of drainage. This means that, in the opinion of the 
inspector, some tile drainage would pay. The average yield of these 54 




Fig. 70. — A twelve-acre orchard, two acres of which arc dead, and two acres 
damaged by lack of drainage. 




Fig. 71. — The trees are all damaged by insufficient drainage. The grower continues 
to plant young trees and these are continually drowned out. It would pay better 
to "plant" tile drains. 



322 



Bulletin 226. 



orchards in 1902 was 203 bushels, 42 bushels below the average of the 
other orchards in this town. Of the 1,987^ acres inspected in the 
remainder of the county, 317 acres have some underdrains, but 831 acres 
need drainage in whole or in part. 

Perhaps five to eight per cent of the orchards of the county need under- 
drainage throughout. About thirty per cent need drainage in part. The 
great loss through neslect of drainage is not in the destruction or damage 




Fig. /_'. — A " draw " in a 140-acre orchard where the trees arc being gradually 
drozvned out. The tree in the foreground is dying but is bearing a large crop 
of little apples and few leaves. The owner considers it a phenomenal tree, but 
it zvill probably not bear many more crops. 

of the few entire orchards, but in the loss from the few small wet places 
in hundreds of orchards ; for there are hundreds of orchards that have 
from one to fifteen per cent of the trees drowned out or badly damaged. 
There is a low place, a " draw " (see Fig. 72), or a kettle-hole, or a place 
where the water seeps out, and a few trees are killed or damaged. These 
vacant places are in most cases waste land. If they were occupied by 
trees it would not add materially to the expense of caring for the orchard, 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 323 



but would add very substantially to the income. Figs. 68, 70 and 71 
show such areas of waste land, due to lack of drainage. Many of the 
trees that are not killed are badly damaged. In such places a few tile 
or a good stone drain would pay many times over. A manufacturer 
would not long allow 
any such loss. Why 
should a farmer give 
less attention to 
losses in his business ? 
Lack of drainage 
may not be apparent 
while the trees are 
young. It is a grow- 
ing evil, for as the 
trees get larger and 
the roots extend 
deeper, they get into 
poorly drained and 
poorly aerated soil. 




Fig. 73. — In the same orchard as Fig. 68, shozving the 
border line between the dead and dying trees. The 
trees are /5 years old. Their size can be seen by com- 
paring with the small boy. The gnarly horizontal 
spread of the limbs is characteristic of trees that are 
in the most poorly drained places. 




Fig. 74. — This orchard is ordinarily fairly well drained but in the wet seasons 
it suffers. The picture was taken Oct. to. 1904. At this date the leaves 
had all fallen, because of the wet soil. The leaves had been falling badly 
for tzvo months. 



324 Bulletin 226. 

The trees may do very well till they are about old enough to bear, then 
some wet season they will be damaged or even killed. 

Those who propose to set new orchards should consider the question 
well before starting such an expensive and long-continued enterprise 
on soil that is not well drained naturally or artificially. It is not enough 
that the soil will raise an ordinary farm crop. The roots of such a crop 
do not go as deep as do apple-roots. Furthermore, if a corn crop is lost 
or damaged by water, it does not prevent raising a good crop next year. 
When an apple orchard is damaged one can not start over the next spring 
as if nothing had happened. The corn is an annual, a one-year invest- 
ment ; the apple, a perennial, a long-time investment. 



CHAPTER X. 

Elevations and Exposures. 

Sites. — The sites are classified as elevated, or well up on the hills ; 

moderately elevated ; slightly elevated, and low. Table 32 shows the 

areas of each division. 

Table 32. 

Sites of orchards. Table includes all ages of trees. 





Walworth. 


Remainder of Co. 


Entire County. 




No. 

orchards. 


Acres. 


No. or- 
chards. 


Acres. 


No. 
orchards. 


Acres. 


Elevated 


158 
133 

147 


790^2 
495 'A 
487X 


34 
9i 

10 


359 
1488 

140/ 


192 
224 

157 


1149^ 
1983 J* 

627^ 


Moderately and slightly elevated. 
Low 





Relation of the sites to yields. — The yields do not indicate any par- 
ticular advantage for any of the divisions. The four-year average in 
Walworth on elevated sites was 227 bushels ; moderately and slightly 
elevated, 224 bushels; low, 213 bushels. For the remainder of the county 




Fig, 75. — An orchard on the east side of a drumlin. 

the differences are about the same but are in the reverse order. Evidently 
the site is not a very important factor. The best site is doubtless one 
that is sufficiently elevated to give good opportunity for air and water- 
drainage, but not so high as to be sharply exposed to wind. 

Hie aspects or exposure. — The majority of the orchards in the drumlin 
area are on east or west slopes occupying the sides of the drumlins (see 
Fig. 75 and page 364). There are, however, many orchards on the rolling 
land of lower levels, and in the north part of the county, where there are 

335 



326 Bulletin 226. 

no drumlins, the land is rolling. Table 33 shows the predominance of 
east and west slopes in Walworth. 

Table 33. 
Aspect. 

Walworth. 
Exposure. No. orchards. Acres. 

N 2S 80 

N. E 27 88 

E : 84 V3 l 2 

S. E 19 741^ 

S 26 giy 2 

S. W 20 74 

W 71 268 

N. W 15 61 

Level 45 129^ 

Rolling* 106 593 

*Most of those classed as rolling are a combination of east and west slopes. The 
south part of the county has equally marked east and west slopes. The north part is 
rolling. 

The effect of aspect on yields. — The easterly slopes in Walworth gave 
a larger yield each of the past four years than have the westerly slopes. 
The difference in 1902 was 23 bushels per acre in favor of the 
easterly slopes. In each of the other years the difference was greater. 
The north part of the county does not show this marked uniform differ- 
ence. The differences are greater than one would expect. In each of the 
four years the northeast slopes have exceeded the northwest, the east have 
exceeded the west ; the only exceptions are that in two cases the south- 
east have failed to exceed the southwest. The four-year average in 
Walworth was 43 bushels in favor of easterly slopes. 

It seems safe to conclude that the easterly slopes have marked advan- 
tages over the westerly. This is due to the protection from the strong 
west winds which do considerable damage at times. In the first part of 
June, 1903, the leaves of the west rows in many orchards were badly 
injured by winds. In many cases the foliage looked brown from the 
distance. The outer part of most leaves was damaged and many entire 
leaves were killed. The effects were still apparent in July. These strong 
west winds also cause more loss from windfalls on the west sides of the 
hills. The orchards on the level exposures give the least yields of all, 
a difference that is probably due to poorer drainage. 



CHAPTER XL 

A Comparison of Rented Orchards with those Managed by the 

Owner. 

znsus of rented orchards. — Between twenty and twenty-live per cent 
of the area devoted to apples is rented. ( See table 34. ) The usual 
method of renting; an orchard is the share system. The renter takes entire 
charge of the orchard and delivers a certain share of the crop — usually 
half — to the owner. A cash rental is not uncommon, but is given in a 
much smaller number of cases. Many of the. renters do not remain on 
one farm longer than one or two years. 

Taele 34. 
1 of rented orchards and of those n at rented. Trees s :S8o. 

Wal-- Remainder of County. Entire Cocnty. 



PROPRIETOR. 

No. r- 

chards. 


Acre- Per No - or " Acres ' Per N 
Acre,. cent _ chards Acres. cent _ chards 


Acres. 


Per 
cent. 


Owner 243 


i.o8o3 + 81 85 i,45i 75 
259^ 19 57 4*7% 25 101 


2-5Vh 

747 


77 
23 


Renter 64 



Effects of the rental system on the health of the orchard. — The large 
number of rented orchards gives rise to a serious problem in orchard 
management. When a man rents land for the growth of field crops, there 
is not only a definite basis for the rent but there is also an unwritten law 
that has established quite definitely how he should raise these crops. 
There are no such definite customs that determine the care which a rented 
apple orchard should receive. 

The greatest obstacle in the way of good care is the fact that the returns 
for good treatment do not come immediately. Good care of field-crops 
gives an immediate effect ; good care of an apple orchard may give less 
returns the first year than it gives several years later. A renter does 
not like to plow up a pasture that is of immediate value for the benefit 
of a future apple-crop. If he mows the grass, he is not likely to leave it 
for a mulch, unless it is not good for hay. The farm manure will bring 
him quicker returns if used on the field-crops. The greatest return which 

32: 



328 



Bulletin 226. 



he gets from pruning may be in the fire-wood procured, and some of the 
pruning is therefore done so as to get the most wood with the least work. 
If he has no crop, he does not see the profit in spraying for the benefit 
of a future crop that he may not reap. 

All these points are emphasized when the renter is certain that he will 
not stay another year. Their effect on the tree is partially indicated by 
the average yields. This average for the past four years has been 174 
bushels for the rented orchards and 210 bushels for those not rented. 
(See table 35.) 

Table 35. 
Yields of roiled orchards compared zvith those not rented. Trees set before 1880. 





Walworth. 


Remainder of County. 


Entire County. 


PROPRIETOR. 


No. or- 
chards. 


Acres. 


Aver- 
age 

yield. 


No. or- 
chards. 


Acres. 


Aver- 
age 
yield. 


No. or- 
chards. 


Acres. 


Aver- 
age 

yield. 


1900. 
Owner 


94 
13 

Il8 
20 

196 

45 

99 
12 


387X 

75 % 

607% 
113 

935 H 

208 y 2 

580^ 
70 


332 
305 

64 
36 

262 

196 

280 
222 


31 

15 

32 
23 

6l 
28 

33 

9 


542 

242 y z 

567 
367^ 

1 004'^ 
395 Y 

575'A 
178^ 


247 
232 

49 

47 

217 
183 

239 

215 


125 
28 

150 
43 

257 
73 

132 
21 


929 Y 
318 

480^ 

1940X 
604 

1156X 
248^ 


283 
249 

57 
45 

239 

187 

260 


Renter 


1901. 
Owner 


Renter 


1902. 
Owner 


Renter 


1903. 
Owner 


Renter 


216 









Four-year average : 

Managed by owner 210 bushels 

Managed by renters 174 " 



The attitude of the renter is, on the whole, about as good as that of 
the owner of a rented farm. Owners are usually very slow to spend 
money on improvements, or in keeping up a place. Both men often 
squeeze the farm for the last penny and let the future look out for itself. 

In a very few cases the difficulty has been overcome by a contract with 
the renter, that he is to give the orchard certain definite care. One such 
contract calls for at least two sprayings and two cultivations. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 329 

Suggestions and reflections on the rented farm. — Many renters would 
be glad to improve the orchard, but the pruning- and renovation of a 
neglected orchard is an expensive undertaking. ( >ne cannot afford to 
do this unless he has a lease for several years, or unless the owner 
helps to pay the cost. The owner does not like to spend money for 
such work, for he feels that he will likely have a poor tenant about the 
time that the orchard gets in good shape. Some have taken the 
broader view and have spent money in the renovation of the orchard. 
These have almost invariably been well repaid by the increased income. 
An owner who takes a pride in keeping up his place and who is willing 
to spend money, if necessary, in improving it, stimulates the renter by 
his own interest. Such a man also attracts the better class of renters. 
He may occasionally have a very poor one, but the average is certainly 
much above that found on the farm where the owner begrudges new 
shingles on the barn. The renter sometimes takes so much pride in 
his work that he will take good care of an orchard even if he does 
not expect an immediate return. This is also a good investment for 
such a man becomes known and can therefore secure a farm more readily 
and sometimes on better terms. 

Unquestionably the most effective way to bring the rented orchards 
up to the average is to give leases for a longer time. The commonest 
reason for not doing this is the fear that a shiftless tenant will secure 
the place and retain it. There is abundant reason for this fear, but if 
the renter changes every year or two, the chances of a bad one at some 
time are multiplied. Such a man may do more damage in one year than 
can be overcome in many years. A fairly good man, or even one that 
is below the average, if kept from year to year will give better results 
than a rapid succession of good and bad tenants. 

As one travels through orchard after orchard, he becomes more and 
more impressed with the desirability of maintaining the American 
ideal of every farm owned by the man who works it. But if the owner 
secures the best renter possible, gives him a lease of several years, 
requires good care of the orchard, and then is willing to bear part of 
the expense of renovating the orchard where this is necessary, the 
renter ceases to be a menace to the apple industry. 



CHAPTER XII. 

Varieties. 

The varieties grown. — Nearly all the bearing orchards are made up of 
a mixture of Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening, with a few trees of 
other kinds. There are more Baldwins than of all other varieties com- 
bined. Probably eighty to ninety per cent of all the trees are either 
Baldwin or Greening. The larger part of the balance are Tompkins King, 
Northern Spy, Twenty Ounce and Roxbury Russet. There are some 
trees of many other varieties but the numbers are so small as to be 
unimportant in comparison with the above kinds. Some of these less 
important varieties are : Hubbardston, Ben Davis, Esopus Spitzenburg, 
Wagener, Duchess of Oldenburg, Red Astrachan. 

The young orchards also differ much in varieties, but the larger part 
are planted to Baldwin, Ben Davis, Greening, Hubbardston. Other 
varieties that are being planted to a very limited extent are : Duchess 
of Oldenburg, Wealthy, Wolf River. Mann, Grimes Golden, Rome Beauty, 
Maiden Blush, Red Astrachan, Northern. Spy, Russets, Snow, Yellow 
Bellflower, Boiken, Mcintosh Red, Gravenstein, Sutton Beauty, Bis- 
mark, etc. 

Variations within the variety. — " We know that no two trees in any 
orchard are alike, either in the amount of fruit which they bear or in 
their vigor and habit of growth. Some are uniformly productive and 
some are uniformly unproductive. We know, too, that scions or buds 
tend to reproduce the characters of the tree from which they are taken. 
A gardener would never think of taking cuttings from a rose-bush, or 
chrysanthemum, or a carnation which does not bear flowers. Why 
should a fruit-grower take scions from a tree which he knows to be 
unprofitable ? 

" The indiscriminate cutting of scions is too clumsy and inexact a prac- 
tice for these days, when we are trying to introduce scientific methods 
into our farming."* 

Long ago men learned that two cows were not necessarily alike because 
they were both Jerseys. The man who would raise cattle from any indi- 
vidual merely because it belonged to the desired breed would be ridiculed. 
But there are as great differences between Baldwin apple-trees as there 
are between Jersey cows. 

*L. H. Bailey, Cornell Bulletin 102, Oct., 1895. 

330 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 331 




Fig. 76. — The old " mother tree " from zvhich all of Mr. Smith's trees were grafted. 
It bears excellent apples and good crops of them. About 500 trees have been 
grafted from this lice. 



??.:■*.'?' * '■• 






*j> * 



^ma 4*^--' 



Ftg. yj. — Trees in Mr. Smith's young orchard. Top-ivorked with scions from 

the " mother tree." 



2>$2 Bulletin 226. 

When the farmer has top-grafted his trees, as is sometimes done for 
other reasons, there has probably been more or less unconscious selection 
from good trees. Few nurserymen have yet paid any attention to the 
matter, nor are they likely to do so till fruit-growers are willing to pay 
for the increased work.* 

One good example of care in the selection of scions was seen in Orleans 
county. Fifty-three years ago Mr. Russell Smith of Albion grafted one 
tree to Baldwin. This proved to be so exceptionally productive that he 
grafted some of the other trees in the same orchard with scions from it. 
A few years later another orchard of three acres was planted. A large 
part of these trees were top-worked to Baldwin with scions from the 
original tree. In 1868 his sons, S. W. and William Smith, decided to 
plant ten acres more. They bought good Northern Spy trees for stocks 
and top-worked them to Baldwin. Most farmers would have taken the 
scions from the young orchard because longer and better-looking shoots 
could have been obtained, but they were not satisfied to do this. They 
went to the original " mother tree " for all the scions. This mother tree 
is still living and producing apples. "" It is literally bearing itself to 
death." (See Fig. 76.) The orchards grafted from it are all producing 
large crops. (See Fig. jj.) Of course there are plenty of good trees 
in New York that were budded or grafted with scions taken from young 
trees or that were taken indiscriminately from old trees, just as there are 
good cattle that were produced without any care in breeding. Some good 
ones will certainly be secured by accident, but the scientific fruit-grower 
eliminates all accidents so far as possible. He increases his chances for 
success when he secures good nursery-grown stock and top-works it from 
trees of bearing age — trees of known productiveness, vigor and quality. 



*J. H. Teats & Sons, of Williamson, are growing " pedigreed " peach trees. They 
have several good orchards, but have only a few trees that they consider good enough 
to bud from. Such a tree must be hardy, it must bear the best peaches and plenty 
of them. They find that the public is willing to pay more for .these trees than for 
trees where no selection has been practiced. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
Enemies oe the Apple. 

The more serious enemies. — The codlin-moth and the scab fungus 
are the most serious enemies of the apple in Western New York. The 
scab is not so injurious if the apples are to be evaporated, but it probably 
causes more loss than any other enemy when apples are to be barreled. 
It was very destructive in 1902, was of small importance in 1903, and was 
very prevalent in 1904. 

Of the insects that attack the tree, the canker-worm (commonly called 
" army worm ") has done the most damage, but it is now practically sub- 
dued. Probably the wood-rot fungi have done more to shorten the lives 
of the trees than any other enemy. These gain entrance through wounds 
and rot out the trunk so that the trees eventually break down. (See 
pruning, Chap. IV.) Canker of the limbs has done much damage and 
has killed a number of entire orchards. (See page 341.) The collar rot, 
" King disease," or " winter injury," as it is variously designated, is the 
worst enemy of King and Spitzenburg varieties. It is not so serious 
with other varieties. (See page 345.) 

In addition to these there are many kinds of insects and diseases that 
do a small amount of damage every year. In their ups-and-downs some- 
times one and sometimes another becomes serious. The bud-moth prob- 
ably did as much damage as any other insect in 1903. Aphids were the 
worst enemy of young trees and caused considerable damage in old 
orchards. They were worse on thrifty trees than on slow-growing ones. 
The best orchardists therefore suffered the most loss from them. The 
apple bucculatrix, or ribbed cocoon-maker of the apple, the apple weevil 
and the mites each did considerable damage in a few orchards. Table 36 
indicates something of the relative importance of the various enemies 
in 1903. 

Table 36. 

Insect and fungous enemies of the apple in 190$. 

Injury. No. orchards. No. acres. 

Canker (Sphacropsis malorum) serious 87 5 2 6H 

considerable 83 729^2 

Bud-moth (Tmctocera ocellana) serious 45 590^4 

considerable yj 221 

slight [48 61454 

Codlin-moth (Carpocapsa pomonella) serious 6r 333^4 

considerable 45 631 

slight all bearing orchards 

333 



334 Bulletin 226. 

Table 36 — Concluded. 

Injury. No. orchards. N'o. acres. 

Collar rot considerable 31 212 

slight nearly all old orchards 

Aphis (Aphis pomi) serious 55 458 

considerable 44 324^ 

slight ail orchards 

Scab ( Venturia inaequalis) serious 66 424^ 

considerable 68 440 
slight all bearing orchards 

Apple-weevil (Anthonotnus quadrigibbus) serious 13 87^ 

considerable 13 79^2 

slight 28 182 

Apple bucculatrix ( Bucculatrix pomifoliella ) serious 7 73 

considerable 9 1565/2 
slight all old orchards 

Canker on leaves (Sphaeropsis malorum) serious 4 94 

considerable 3 67 

slight 1 4 

Leaf-blister mites serious 4 25 l / 2 

considerable 6 34 

slight 56 2,72 l A 

Leaf spot {Phylloslicla sp.) serious 5 44 

considerable 9 383^ 
slight nearly all orchards 

Leaf sewer (Phoxoptcris ncbcculana) serious 4 43 

considerable 7 104 

slight 33 719 

Canker-worm ( Palcacrita vcrnata) serious 3 21 

considerable 3 i2 l / 2 

slight 3 27^ 

Tent caterpillar (Clisiocampa americana ) serious 1 10 

considerable 2 6*/> 

slight 36 146^ 

Woolly aphis (Schiaoneura lanigera ) serious 2 6 

considerable 4 22 
slight nearly all orchards 

Fall web worm (Hyphaiitria cunea) serious o o 

considerable 2 2> l / 2 

slight 27 479I/2 

San Jose scale (Aspidiolus perniciosus ) serious o o 

considerable 1 4 

slight 1 2 

This table includes all the enemies that were found to be serious in any orchard, 
except borers and the wood-rot fungi. Many other insects and fungi were seen but 
were not doing any considerable barm. 

Common notions regarding orchard enemies. — It is interesting to note 
the enemies that have impressed themselves on the minds of the orchard- 
ists. In answer to the question as to what insects or diseases had damaged 
the orchard in the past, the canker-worm was mentioned for 173 orchards, 
scab for 120, tent-caterpillars for 112; codlin-moth came fourth. No 
other enemy was mentioned more than five times. Among those men- 
tioned were canker, borers, San Jose scale, pink rot, case-bearers, collar 
rot, leaf-roller, oyster-shell bark louse, aphids, handmaid moth, curculio, 
palmer-worm. Losses due to mice, sun scald and russeting of the fruit 
were also mentioned. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 335 

The Apple-Scab Fungus (Venturia iiiaequalis). 

Importance of this disease. — The worst disease with which the apple- 
grower has to contend is the apple-scab, commonly called " the 
fungus." More questions are asked about it than about any other 
enemy of the apple, and there is great difference of opinion among 
farmers as to what it is and what to do about it. True, spraying has 
become an accepted practice and the best fruit-growers practically 
eliminate the scab, but the majority of farmers do not do so. The 
varying opinions are due to the fact that the fungus is invisible or 
inconspicuous until it " goes to seed." A knowledge of its life history 
is essential to any intelligent treatment of it. It has been frequently 
described, but the information is 
not yet sufficiently disseminated. 
I shall, therefore, attempt to answer 
some of the common questions that 
are asked about it. A few ques- 
tions are asked over and over again. 
"What is the fungus?" "What 
causes it?" " Why is it worse in 
wet seasons?" "Why are some 
varieties more affected than others?" 

What is the scab fungus? — "This 
apple-scab is no new pest. It has 
no doubt been seriously present FlG 7S _ Young ahplcs severely attacked 
ever since apples were grown in by the scab fungus. 

the country, causing many fail- 
ures of crops which were laid to the weather or the moon."* 

This fungus is a very small plant that grows as a parasite on the 
leaves and on the apple, — the apple is its soil. We might say that it 
is a weed that grows on the apple and allied fruits rather than on the 
ground. It lives over winter on the fallen leaves and perhaps to a very 
limited extent on the branches. " Scab makes its first appearance early 
in the spring, usually soon after the leaves begin to unfold, and it is 
while these and the fruit are in a young condition that the fungus 
can best infect them."f (See Fig. 78.) The seed (spore) falls on the 




• r -J!i.5Wifc 



*L. H. Bailey in Cornell Bulletin 84. Jan., 1895. 

f'George P. Clinton. Bui. 67, Univ. of Til. Agr. Exp. Sta. Dec, 1901. 



3& 



Bulletin 226. 



young apple or on the leaf and there grows, sending its roots 
(mycelium) into the tissues of the apple. At first the infected spot 




but it is sel- 
still later in the 
breaks through 
causes the black 
shows a n 
just reached 
outer skin of 
breaking away 



is invisible, later 
it causes the skin 
to take on a deep 
olive-green color, 
dom noticed until 
season when it 
the skin and 
scab. Fig. 79 
apple that has 
this stage. The 
the apple is 
exposing the FlG - 79-— -The outer skin (cuticle) ruptured, b j ack f un g USj 

, . , , exposing the fungus. 

which has now gone to 

seed." In time the spores are blown and washed away and some of the 

fungus cells and dead tissue are more or less worn away so that the color 

may become a reddish-brown, 

due to the exposed dead corky 

tissue. The scab spots on the 

left in Fig. 80 show the spores 

and fungus cells beginning to 

leave from the center of the 

spot. The large scab on the 

right shows the rusty scar that 

is left after the disease tissue 

has scaled off. Farmers describe 

this change by saying that " the 

fungus leaves the apple," or 

" the fungus changes to rust." 

Ftp 9n Ti, a- a ,■ r Tf this takcs P lace before the 

riG. .So. — 1 he diseased tissue scaling oft- from 

the apple. apple is picked, the appearance 




An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 337 

and keeping quality are not so seriously affected as when picked in the 
stage shown in Fig. 79, but the fungus may make some further growth 
around the edge of the scar if put in warm storage. 

Fig. 81 shows a Baldwin apple so badly attacked that it has become 
distorted and cracked. Most cases of cracking of the apple are due 
to this fungus. 

Fig. 82 shows three sections of apple-leaves. " In Fig. 1 the leaf is 
healthy. Observe the regularity of the three upper layers of cells. In 
Fig. 2, the brown fungus may be seen growing on the upper surface, 
and at this stage it has 
destroyed the upper or 
epidermal cells, although 
it is probable that the 
mycelium of the fungus 
first spreads just under 
the cuticle, on top of the 
layer of epidermal cells. 
Fig. 3 shows the fungus 
when it is better estab- 
lished, and it will be seen 
that all the cells of the 
leaf are disarranged, the 
chlorophyll or green 
grains being few in 
number, and the leaf has 
increased in thickness. 
This, Fig. 3, is a cross-section through one of the blister-like elevations 
which are shown on the leaf in Fig. 83. It will be seen that the fungus 
does not enter the deeper tissues of the leaf, although it disorganizes 
them by its parasitic effects. In Fig. 3, a spore can be seen at A, and 
two are shown broken off their stem or hyphae at B. In Fig. 2 the spores 
can be seen in process of formation at the ends of the threads, and at C 
one of the threads is cut off."* 

Relation of the weather to the scab fungus. — Nearly all fungi are fav- 
ored by wet weather; wheat rust, bean rust, potato blight, etc., are all 
worse in wet seasons. The wet weather does not create anv fundus 




Fig. 81. — Baldwin apple showing cracking due to the 
fungus. 



*L. H. Bailey in Cornell Bulletin 84. Jan., 1895. 



33»- 



Bulletin 226. 




W >\'Hll 



-, '■*'■ ; 
3.2 S*I* !'< 




/ ~ 






• ] ■ 



any more than favorable weather creates a corn crop. A fungus can- 
not develop unless the spores get on the host plant any more than a 
corn crop can be grown without planting the seed. But there are usually 
plenty of spores on hand so that all they need is weather favorable to 
their growth. Unusually wet weather during the blossoming period 
favors the growth of the scab fungus. For the same reason it does 
more damage in shady, unpruned and undrained orchards. Dense 
tops prevent the evaporation of the moisture. Open tops allow the 
air to circulate freely, and they therefore quickly dry out after a 
rain or dew. 

Some varieties are more affected than others. — The Snow, Spitzenburg 

and Maiden Blush 
are particularly sub- 
ject to scab. The 
Greening and Twenty 
Ounce are more af- 
fected than the Bald- 
win. Golden Russet 
and Hubbardston are 
among the more 
resistant varieties. 
The difference is 
probably due to the 
more tender outer 
skins of some vari- 
eties. The fungus 
must penetrate the 
outer skin before it can do any damage. It is interesting to note that 
while the Greening apples are much more affected than the Baldwin, yet 
the Baldwin foliage is very much more affected than that of the Greening. 
Relation to other fungi. — The scab fungus is often confused with other 
fungi that secure a foothold in the wounds caused by the scab. Part 
of this confusion is doubtless due to the fact that the scab is almost 
always called " the fungus." It would be well if farmers would call 
it the apple-scab, in order to distinguish it from the hundreds of other 
fungi. The scab fungus causes the dark spots on the apple that may 
later change to rusty spots. It is never white. The white moulds that 
sometimes grow on these same spots are other fungi that could not have 



> 






■ ' ■ V- 

> J * ***** J)<. **>• 



I 






Fig. 82. — Cross-sections of apple leaves. 1. Healthy leaf. 
3. The tipper surface attacked by the scab fungus. 3. 
A later stage in the growth of the fungus. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 339 



hurt the apple had the skin not been 
broken by the scab or by some injury. 
One of these, the pink rot, caused much 
damage in 1902.* 

Treatment. — A sufficient number of 
thorough sprayings with the Bordeaux 
mixture will keep the apples prac- 
tically free from scab. The essential 
points are thoroughness and prompt- 
ness. Spraying after the scab becomes 
established does little or no good. Some 
men have been surprised to see the 
scab develop under spots where the 
spray was still visible. This simply 
means that the spraying was too late — 
the fungus was already in the apple. 

Since the spores do not all germinate 
at once, we should not expect one appli- 




Fig. 84. — Leaf spots probably caused 
by Phyllosticta sp. 




Fig. 83. — The scab fangas on the 
leaf. 



cation of Bordeaux to keep off all the 
scab any more than we would expect one 
cultivation of a corn crop to kill all the 
pigweeds. One application if made at 
the right time will, however, frequently 
make a great difference. Three spray- 
ings at the right times will nearly always 
keep the apples free from scab. Two 
will sometimes do so. A further dis- 
cussion of the method of summer treat- 
ment and of winter treatment will be 
found under spraying. (Pages 392 

to 3940 

Leaf spots caused by the scab fungus. — 
Fig. 83 shows the large blister-like eleva- 
tions caused by the scab. These spots 
usually occur on the upper surface, but 
are not confined to that surface. Late in 
the season they are nearly black, the color 



"Cornell Bulletin 207. 



340 



Bulletin 226. 



of the scab on the apple. Scab did considerable damage to the foliage in 
unsprayed orchards in 1904. 

Leaf spots caused by other diseases. — Fig. 84 shows the spots caused 
by a different fungus, probably Phyllosticta. These spots are of a reddish- 
brown color. They do not blister the leaf. This fungus did little 
damage in 1903, but in the wet season of 1904 it caused much damage 
to the leaves. Spraying seems to have had little or no effect in checking 
this disease. 

The so-called " yellow leaf " that caused the leaves to fall during July 
and August was partly due to this trouble and partly due to wet 

soil. Many orchards that are ordi- 
narily well drained were wet this 
year. (See Fig. 74.) Those that 
are ordinarily too wet were very 
bad in 1904. The leaf spot was 
generally much worse in the poorly 
drained orchards. In some orchards 
the scab on the leaf and the mites 
also caused leaves to fall. 

Leaf -blister mite. — Fig. 85 shows 
the under side of a leaf infested 
with the blister mite. This had not 
been reported as occurring on the 
apple until it was found during the 
orchard survey in Wayne county. 
Specimens were sent to Professor 
Slingerland, who wrote as follows 
Fig. 85.— Under side of leaf, showing leaf concerning them : ' The pear-leaf- 
blistcrs caused by mites. 




pest in many sections of the country 



blister mite is now a well-known 
but never before until last summer 
had we seen or heard of a similar pest in apple-leaves. Scattered through 
central New York there were many apple-trees with many of their leaves 
showing the corky blisters characteristic of these mites. We have not 
yet made a careful study of the mites to determine if they are the same 
as the pear species. The blisters in the apple-leaves differ slightly from 
those in pear, but this may be due to the different food-plants."* These 
mites were found in 53 orchards in 1903 and were found in many orchards 



*Bulletin 46. Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 341 

in Orleans county in 1904. They were not ven bad in mure than a half 
dozen orchards in each county, but in a few orchards some trees had prac- 
tically every leaf affected. Their local distribution even in the severe 
cases seems to indicate that they do not spread rapidly. The ordinary 
spraying has no effect on them, because they live within the leaf where 
poison can not reach them. Tt is probable that kerosene emulsion applied 
before the buds open would kill them. 

Injuries clue to these three causes and to many other enemies that 
attack the leaves are quite commonly confused with each other and with 
spots that are sometimes caused by spraying. 

The Apple-Tree Canker {Sphaeropsis malorum Pk.). 

Description. — The black, rough bark and partially girdled limbs are so 
characteristic of this disease that it is easily recognized. ( See Fig. 86.) 
The diseased part may extend for several feet along the branch, or may 
be only a small spot. Usually it is five to ten inches long. The bark 
may be merely roughened and black (as in B, Fig. 86) or the limb may 
be partially girdled (as in A, Fig. 86). In the worst cases the dead limbs 
stick out all over the tree-top. (See Fig. 87.) 

Extent of the injury. — The canker causes more loss than any other 
disease except the scab fungus and, possibly, the fungi that cause the 
trunks to decay when improperly pruned. It was found to be very serious 
in 14 per cent of the orchards and was doing considerable damage in 
19 per cent. Injuries of this character are less conspicuous but are much 
more serious than those that affect the leaves — canker attacks the tree 
directly. It does not often do much damage on young trees. It usually 
occurs on limbs two to three inches in diameter, but sometimes attacks 
the twigs or larger limbs. It very rarely occurs on the trunks, except 
on the Twenty Ounce. This variety is particularly subject to the disease. 
I have seen very few mature Twenty Ounce trees that were not badly 
infected. It is also serious on the Spitzenburg. The Baldwin is more 
affected than the Greening, Russet, King or Northern Spy. 

The same fungus occurs on the leaves, but does not seem to be serious. 
In Wayne county in 1903 it was found on the leaves in eight orchards 
and was doing considerable damage in seven of them. It was not found 
on the foliage of any orchard examined in 1904. On the leaf it shows 
a distinct series of concentric circles. One infected point may develop 



342 



Bulletin 226. 















w 


^^ : '- 














1 pfrjm 






m 




P. 


" , '^-S -^ 


^ 










v& 




■ ;)f 




V'-.V"-" '. :-i 

- 

■ 


1 






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|?N 






Pn^i 














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2 
























ft 


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A' 











Fig. 86. — Canker of the apple-tree. In B only the outer bark is affected, 
shows the branch half girdled. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 343 




344 Bulletin 226. 

to nearly half an inch in diameter. The brown rot of stored apples is 
also due to the same fungus. 

Cause. — The cause was not known until about six years ago, when it 
was worked out by Wendell Paddock of the Geneva station. * Until that 
time it was commonly attributed to sun-scald. Comparatively few fruit- 
growers are yet informed of the real cause. It is still attributed to sun- 
scald or lightning, or passes as " dead limbs " without any cause. Prac- 
tically no sun-scald has been seen in either of the counties studied. 

Air. Paddock found that the canker is caused by a fungus that grows 
on the bark and cambiumf layer of the tree. The black color of the 
canker is partly due to the spore-fruits of the fungus. Many of the 
spores (seeds) remain on the branches till spring or longer, when they 
are given off and disseminated. The fungus seems to be unable to pene- 
trate to the cambium layer through living bark. The cankers are thought 
to be formed by those spores that chance to fall in some slight wound 
and there germinate and produce more cankers. Sometimes the fungus 
grows for some distance on the outer bark without penetrating to the 
cambium. (See B, Fig. 86.) In such cases no direct injury is done to 
the tree, but spores are produced and disseminated so that a constant 
source of infection is maintained. 

Treatment. — With the exception of the Twenty Ounce, no orchard in 
which the trees have always been kept in a good growing condition has 
been found to be seriously affected. Something more than thrifty growth 
seems to be necessary in order to prevent the destruction of the Twenty 
Ounce. 

A few farmers in Wayne county and more in Orleans county have been 
treating the disease during the past few years and have had excellent 
results. The essential points of the treatment are : 

(1) Prune out the limbs that are badly diseased. 

(2) Spray the limbs with Bordeaux mixture. 

(3) Most important of all, get the trees to growing. 

Mr. G. D. Simpson of Carlton has carried the treatment a step farther. 
When pruning he scraped off the rough, diseased bark around each 
canker and gave a generous application of strong blue vitriol. This was 
undoubtedly a good thing, but the treatment given above seems to be 
invariably successful. 



*New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 163, Dec, i8qq. 
fTlie cambium layer is a tissue that lies between the wood and the bark. It is the 
tissue that produces the new wood and inner bark, 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 



345 



Mr. Albert Wood of Carlton Station has even grown new tops on his 
Twenty Ounce trees and has kept the new growth from becoming 
diseased by spraying the limbs and by keeping the trees growing. This 
variety is so subject to canker that it can not be kept healthy without 
constant vigilance. 

Collar Rot. 

Occurrence and de- 
scription. — In nearly 
every mature orchard 
one comes across some 
trees on which the bark 
around the base is dead 
and loose, or has fallen 
away. The injury usu- 
ally extends only 6 to 18 
inches above the ground, 
but sometimes it ex- 
tends 3 to 4 feet up the 
trunk. As the area of 
dead bark increases, the 
tree may be entirely 
girdled. (See Fig. 88.) 
It is quite commonlv 
attributed to the hired 
man having hit the tree 
with the machinery when 
working in the orchard, 
and the injury does re- 
semble a wound made 
by hitting the trunk at 
the surface of the 
ground. But before the blame can be fixed on the hired man we must 
explain how he happened to hit all the King and Spitzenburg trees and 
missed most of the Baldwins and Greenings, also why the disease is as 
bad or worse in those orchards that have not been tilled. 

This disease is the worst enemy of the King apple. It lias sometimes 
been called the " King disease."- Probably the majority of all the trees 




ic. 88. — A Baldwin tree hilled by collar rot. Note 
the spot at base of tree. In this twenty-acre 
orchard about one-third of the trees are dead and 
one-third more arc badly affected. In this ease the 
very poor drainage has been largely responsible. 



^Bulletin 191. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



346 



Bulletin 226. 




Fig. 89. — Collar rot of the Kvrcg, shozving 

diseased and cracked condition of 
bark. 

decay and frequently girdle the 
tree. 

Treatment. — Little can be done 
except to treat the wound as any 
other wound should be treated. If 
the dead bark is cleaned away and 
paint applied, it will delay the 
decay of the wood. In some cases 
this has preserved the wood and 
the wound has healed over. 

The effective treatment must be 
prevention. If hardy stocks are 
planted and top-worked to King or 
Esopus Spitzenburg, the trouble is 
avoided. (See Fig. 92.) The losses 
of Baldwin from this disease are 
not very great, but are enough so 
that it might pay to top-work them 



of this variety that are thirty years 
old are affected. It is nearly as 
serious on the Spitzenburg. The 
Baldwin is more affected than the 
Spy, Greening or Russets, but none 
of these are as badly affected as are 
the King and Spitzenburg. It 
seems to be worse on poorly drained 
land than on good soil. 

Cause. — The cause is not defi- 
nitely known. It is probably some- 
times due to winter injury, but this 
does not seem to account for it in 
all cases. Whatever the original 
cause, the wound once made be- 
comes infected by the wood-rot 
fungfi, which cause the trunk t;> 




Fig. 90. — Collar rot of the King. The 

same tree as in fig. So with the dead 
bark removed. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 347 

also on some hardier stock, as the Spy. When we add to this the desira- 
bility of each grower selecting his own scions from productive trees, it 
will probably be well worth while to top-bud or graft. 

The planting of the King has almost ceased on account of prevalence 
of this disease. But it furnishes no reason whatever for abandoning 
this excellent apple. In the many cases where the Kings were top- 




Fir,. 01. — .1 row of Kings, all affected with collar rot. Dying gradually but surely. 



grafted, as suggested above, there has been no appearance of the 
trouble, or no more trouble than was usual for the variety of stock 
on which it was grafted. In view of tliesc facts, it seems fair to say that 
no King or Esopus Spitzenburg tree propagated in the ordinary way 
slwuld be set in Western Nezv York. If these varieties are desired, 
secure than by top-grafting on some hardy stock. 



348 



Bulletin 226. 




Fig. 92. — Collar rot avoided by top~working on Spy stock, 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Yields, Markets and Prices. 

Average yields. — The following tables give some of the chief points in 
the average yields : 

Table 37. 

Approximate total yield for entire county. 

Bushels. 

1899 (U. S. Census report ) t. 394.000 

1900 4,872.000 

1901 672.000 

1902 4,053,000 

Table 38. 
. Iverage yield per acre. 





Trkes Set Before 1880. 


Trees Set Since 1879. 


Average. 




No. or- 
chards. 


Acres. 


Average 

yield. 


No. or- 
chards. 


Acres. 


Average 
yield. 


No. or- 
chards. 


Acres. 


Average 
yield. 


1899* . . 














19,000 
1,686% 
2,28l^ 
3,067% 
1,621% 


73 


1900 

1901 

1902 

100 3 + 


I/I 
293 
385 


I,496X 
2,041% 
2, 734% 


252 

34 
222 


18 
25 
31 


190 
240 

333 


46 
22 

74 


189 
318 
416 
200 


229 

32 

206 

265 



















*The yield for T.899 is for "trees of bearing age" and is taken from the census 
report. 

fThe average yield for 1903 is too large for it does not include young trees nor 
does it include orchards that Rave no yield. 



! \ I ! I . E 39. 

Average yield per tree. 

Trees set before 1880. Bushels. 

1899 (trees of bearing age) 1 - 75 

1900 5 • 78 

1901 .78 

1902 5 01 

Average 3-33 

This calculation is for the number of trees that the orchards would contain if 
there were no trees missing. 

319 



35° Bulletin 226. 

Table 40. 
Average number of bushels raised by each grower in Walworth. 

Bushels. 
T900 1 ,700 

1901 2IO 

1902 1,200 

The three-year-average yield in Walworth township is about thirty-four bushels 
above that of the entire county. This difference is due to the poorer care given in 
the remainder of the county, particularly in the southern part. 

Table 41. 

Variations in yields of orchards. 

The following table will give some idea of the distribution of yields that produced 
the averages in 1902, trees set before 1880. 



YIELD. 


Walworth. 


Remainder of County. 


Entirf. County. 


No. 
orchards. 


No. acres. 


No. 
orchards. 


No. acres. 


No. 
orchards. 


No. acres. 


0-100 bushels 


36 

75 
75 
46 
26 
31 


361 Yz 

301 
67^ 
85 


17 
27 
28 


386^ 

417^ 
T.AA X A 


53 
102 

103 

57 
3i 
36 


578 
779 
657X 
495 

122 y 2 
138 


101-200 bushels 

201-300 bushels 


301-400 bushels 

401-500 bushels 


II I94 

5 " 


Over 500 bushels 


5 


53 



The largest yield reported for the year 1902 was 1,000 bushels per acre from a 
four-acre orchard. 



Markets — the evaporating Industry. — The orchard industry of this 
county cannot be understood without a knowledge of the evaporating 
industry. How predominant this industry is can be seen by r ;ferring 
to table 42. The proportion of apples evaporated varies from year to 
year, being influenced by the quality of the fruit and the relative prices of 
green and dried apples. Probably seventy-five per cent of all the apples 
raised in this county during the past four years has been evaporated. 
A little less than half the evaporated fruit was evaporated by the man 
who grew it. That which is sold usually goes to some farmer's 
evaporator. The evaporators are almost as characteristic of the farm- 
yards as are the barns. They also occur in all of the villages, but the 
largest part of the evaporating is done on the farms. The industry 
is a rural one and seems likely to remain such for some years. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 351 

Table 42. 

What becomes of the apple crop. 



HOW DISPOSED OF. 


1900. 


1901. 


1902. 


I903. 


Bushels. 


Per 

cent. 


Bushels. 


Per 
cent. 


Bushels. 


Per 
cent. 


Bushels. 


Per 
cent. 


Evaporated by the 
grower 

Sold to be evapo- 
rated 

Picked and sold in 
barrels or in bulk. . 


90, 650 
92,641 


33 
33 


12,175 
14.094 

9- 933 
18,600 


22 
26 
18 

34 


191,480 

213,643 
73,000 

107,830 

7-950 


32 
36 
12 

18 
2 


160,840 

134,319 
139,085 


37 
31 
32 


Part evaporated or 
sold to evaporate 
and part barreled, 
the proportion not 
given 

Otherwise disposed 
of 


88.178 

6,000 


32 

2 




5,392 


I 











If we apportion the yield that was partly barreled and partly evaporated then the 
percentage of the crop evaporated would be about as follows : 1900, 85 per cent ; 
1901, 60 per cent; 1902, 75 per cent; 1903, 68 per cent. 

Table 43. 

Orchards from which the entire crop was evaporated or sold to evaporate — none 

were hand-picked. 



YEAR. 



No. orchards. 



1900. 
1901 . 
1902. 
1903 . 



104 

41 
288 

113 



No. acres. 



526^ 
329^ 
1657K 
583 



No. bushels. 



151,700 

17, 060 

316,980 

147,830 



Per cent 

of the 

total yield. 



57 
31 
45 
34 



In many cases the fact that the women and children of the household 
can help in the work, so reduces the expense that the small evaporator 
can successfully compete with the larger ones. 

The evaporating industry furnishes a good outlet for fruit that is 
not good enough to barrel. Tt should he encouraged by every possible 
means. The ease of preserving and the small space into which a bushel 
of apples can be condensed make this a very desirable way of reaching 
the cheaper trade in Europe and Asia as well as in our own cities. 



352 



Bulletin 226. 




A good harvest. Barreled and ready for storing. 




Hauling to the depot. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 353 

The dried apples occupy only about one-seventh of the space occupied by 
the green apples from which they came. This makes a great saving in 
the cost of transportation. The Government can be of great assistance in 
helping to develop these markets. There should be a good future for the 
evaporating industry. 

But in order to secure and retain this trade the evaporator men must 
furnish a product that will keep. One of the reasons for the present low- 
price is undoubtedly the result of marketing what has been aptly termed 
" apple sauce." The stock is not dried sufficiently to> keep well. One 
reliable firm evaporated 52,000 bushels in 1903, which averaged 6.29 lbs. 
of dried stock per bushel. Their average in 1902 was h.85 lbs. The 
average of a number of small evaporators in 1903 was 7.45 lbs. 

The number of pounds dried stock that a bushel will give varies 
greatly with the variety of the apple. Y\ 'inter varieties average from 
one-fifth to one-seventh above the fall varieties. Russets give a larger 
product than Greening or Baldwin. Ben Davis and Twenty Ounce give 
less than these. The amount is said to vary in different years. But none 
of these factors account for the difference between 6.29 and 7.45 pounds. 
If the stock that was dried till a bushel gave only 6.29 pounds was prop- 
erly dried, what can we say of that which contained 1.16 pounds more 
water, or what of that where nearly 9 pounds of dried stock were secured 
from a bushel? The whole subject of evaporating and marketing 
deserves a careful study. 

It zcould pay to raise better fruit and barrel more of it. — Desirable as 
the evaporating industry is in disposing of poor fruit, there is little 
question that it would pay the growers to raise better apples and pick 
the best for barreling. From a third to a half of the crop, depending 
on the year, is sold to evaporate without thus selecting the best to 
barrel, that is, the entire crop is shaken from the trees for evaporating. 
(See table 43.) This includes a still larger proportion of the number 
of orchards, in some years as many as three-fourths, for it is more 
practiced in the small orchards than in the larger ones. 

A few growers, particularlv in the western part of the county, sell 
a part of their crop in Rochester to retail dealers or sell it on the 
streets. This is particularly profitable with apples of extra good 
quality. 

There are a number of secondary markets. One man used 50,000 
bushels in 1902 for the manufacture of brandy. The vinegar works 



354 Bulletin 226. 

of the American Fruit Product Company at Newark make about half 
a million gallons of cider and vinegar per year. Many others make 
smaller quantities of cider and vinegar. 

Prices. — Apples for evaporating are sold by the 100 pounds. The 
average prices and the prices of barreled apples are given in table 44. 

Table 44. 
Average price paid for apples to evaporate per 100 lbs. (2 bushels). 

Year. Price. 

1900 $0 30 

1901 64 

1902 44 

1903 41-3 

Average frier per barrel. 

1902 1 75 

1903 1 85 

Average price per bushel picked apples sold in bulk, 1903. . 44-2 
Average price per pound for dried stock, 1903 -0504 

Apples sold on the streets and to grocerymen in Rochester are quite variable in 
price, but usually bring two to three times as much as when sold to dry. 

The vinegar factories pay the lowest price of any market. The 1902 prices ranged 
from 12 to 20 cents per hundred. 

Income per acre. — The average gross income per acre for the entire 
county from orchards set before 1880 has been as follows: 1900, $37.80; 
1901, $14.28; 1902, $48.18. The averages in Walworth township have 
been considerably better than the average for the county. If these incomes 
seem rather small, it must be remembered that averages include orchards 
that have received no care of any kind as well as those that have received 
the best possible treatment. Unfortunately the average expense can not 
be obtained, for very few men keep an account of the expense of caring 
for the orchard. In a very large number of orchards — the ones that lower 
the average yield and income — there is practically no expense except the 
use of the land and the expense of hauling the apples to the evaporator. 
Table 45 will give a better idea of the average income, as it gives the 
number of orchards for each difference of $10 in income. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 355 



Table 45. 
Average income per acre from orchards set before 1880, entire county. 



INCOME 


1900. 


1901. 


1902. 


PER ACRE. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. 
acres. 


Per 
cent. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. 
acres. 


Per 

cent. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. 
acres. 


Per 
cent. 


Less than $10. . . 
$10 to $19 

20 to 29 

30 to 39 

40 to 49 

50 to 59 

60 to 69 

70 to 79 

80 to 89 

90 to 99 

100 to 124 

125 to 149 

150 or more. . . . 


14 
14 
16 
30 
21 
23 
25 
I 1 

5 
2 

9 
2 

5 


I2I}£ 

l6l 

l64>< 

186/2 

IO3/2 

88 
134^ 

74*; 

13 

6 

144 

8 

14 


10. 
13 -3 

13-5 
15-4 

8.5 
7-3 

11 . 1 
6.2 

1 . 1 

0.5 
11 . 1 

0.7 

1 .2 


Il8 
25 
29 

8 

9 
16 
1 
1 
2 


670^ 

276 

201 

55^ 
52 
147 
8 

4 

22>< 


44-5 
18.4 

13-4 
3-7 
3-5 
9.8 

0.5 
0.3 
1-5 


16 
33 
34 
52 
40 
43 
22 

34 
18 
16 
30 
18 
10 


105^ 

252/ 

213/ 

356'A 

277 

230/ 

98 
175H 
138/2 

85/2 
135^ 
140* 
169 


4 
10 

9 

15 
11 

9 
4 

7 
5 
3 

5 
5 
7 


4 
6 



7 
1 

4 
8 
6 


5 
4 
3 


23^ 

33 

I2>4 


1.6 
2.2 
0.8 


8 

9 




1900. 



Average income per acre — entire county — 
trees of all ages 

Average income per acre — entire county — 
trees set before 1880 

Average income per acre in Walworth — trees 
set before 1880 

Average total income per grower in Walworth 



$34 35 

37 80 

49 50 
255 00 



1901. 



$13 44 

14 28 

17 22 
88 20 



1902. 



$44 70 

48 18 

52 58 
264 00 



SUMMARY. 



Extent of the Survey. — During the summer of 1903, 574 orchards, con- 
taining 3,761 acres, were examined in Wayne county. In 1904, 564 
orchards, of 4,881 acres, were examined in Orleans county. The statistics 
in this report are based on Wayne county. The results from Orleans 
county we hope to publish later. 

Area planted to apples. — There are in W^ayne county about 21,000 acres 
of apple orchards. The total area of improved land in farms is 305,299* 
acres ; or, 6.9 per cent of the improved farm land is planted to apples. 

Varieties. — Baldwin and Greening are the leading varieties. Roxbury 
Russet, King, Northern Spy and Twenty Ounce are also rather exten- 
sively grown. The recent plantings have some of these same varieties, 
but there is a tendency to plant the earlier-bearing kinds. 

Rented orchards. — Between twenty and twenty-five per cent of the 
orchards are rented. The four-year average yield of those managed by 
the owner has been 210 bushels ; of those managed by renters, 174 bushels. 

Orchard renovation. — Nearly all of the orchards have been badly neg- 
lected, but during the past few years a large part of them have received 
more attention. Fourteen per cent have been distinctly renovated during 
the past ten years. 

Tillage and yields. — Twenty per cent have been tilled five years or 
more ; 44 per cent have been in sod at least five years ; the others have 
been tilled part of the time. Thirty per cent were tilled in 1903. 

The four-year-average yields have been : Tilled every year for at 
least five years, 266 bushels ; tilled most years, 229 bushels ; sod most 
years, 202 bushels ; sod at least five years, 148 bushels. Or the average 
yield of those that are regularly tilled is 80 per cent above that of those 
regularly in sod. A part of this difference is due to tillage and a part is 
due to the fact that the man who tills his orchard is likely to give it 
improved care in other respects. Taking only those orchards that are 
otherwise well cared for, the difference is reduced to 35 per cent in favor 
of tillage, the four-year-average yields being: Tilled every year, 271 
bushels ; tilled most years, 245 ; sod most years, 206 ; sod every year, 200. 

Of the various methods of sod treatment, pasturing with hogs or sheep 



^Twelfth Census Report. 

356 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 357 

gave better yields than not pasturing or pasturing with cattle or horses ; 
but none of the methods of sod treatment equalled tillage in average 
yields. A few sod orchards are among the best producers, but the 
average is much below that of the tilled ones. Liberal applications of 
barnyard manure reduce the need of tillage. 

Very many orchards are in need of more growth in order to place the 
trees in a vigorous condition. Tillage is usually the cheapest and most 
effective way of producing this. Barnyard manure may also be needed. 

Fertilization and yields. — One-third of the orchards received no fer- 
tilization of any kind. The other two-thirds received more or less manure. 
Probably less than half received enough of anything so as to be classed as 
fertilized. Commercial fertilizers have been used in about twelve per 
cent and green manure (cover-crops) in about the same area. 

The average yield for 1902 and 1903 of fertilized orchards was 257 
bushels ; for unfertilized it was 202 bushels. 

A few men have shipped in manure from Buffalo. Some have found 
that they can profitably buy cattle for winter-feeding, and thus secure 
manure. 

Cover-crops. — On most of the soils, humus is needed more than mere 
plant-food. Barnyard manure or cover-crops usually give better results 
than commercial fertilizers. _ 

Cover-crops were grown in eight per cent of the orchards in 1903. 
Buckwheat is the most commonly used. Crimson clover, red clover, rye, 
large clover, alfalfa, peas and oats, and vetch are also grown. 

Pruning. — The ultimate death of most trees is due to neglect of pruning 
coupled with a type of pruning that is worse than neglect. In sixteen 
per cent of the orchards, stubs from two to twelve inches long were left. 
Paint is rarely used on wounds. This treatment causes the trunks to 
decay and results in a broken tree. 

The important points in pruning are: (1) The limbs should be cut 
close to the trunk. (2) Large limbs should not be removed without 
cause. (3) Paint should be used on large wounds. (4) Pruning should 
be done every year rather than give the occasional "thorough trimming." 

Spraying. — Thirty-three per cent of the orchards are seldom or never 
sprayed ; 41 per cent were sprayed in 1903. 

Spraying gives less profit when fruit is grown for evaporating than 
when grown to barrel. In 1903 the damages from insects and fungi were 
small, but in this year the sprayed orchards averaged 27 bushels per acre 



358 Bulletin 226. 

above the unsprayed and averaged better in price. The average income 
per acre from sprayed orchards was $77.84; from unsprayed, $63. In 
many cases only one spraying was given. 

Distance between trees. — A great loss is caused by the trees being too 
close together. When trees are too close, the lower limbs die and cause a 
loss not only in the crop, but the dead limbs lead to decayed trunks. In 
43 per cent of the mature orchards the trees are 30 x 30 feet or less, the 
average distance being 31.6 feet. The four-year-average yields have been : 
Trees not over 30 x 30 feet, 186 bushels; 31 x 31 to 35 x 35 feet, 222 
bushels ; 36 x 36 to 40 x 40 feet, 229 bushels. 

If trees are too close: (1) They are not so healthy. (2) The fruit 
does not color well. (3) The trees have less bearing surface. (4) In- 
sects and fungi do more damage. (5) The cost of labor is greater. 

Orchards should be thinned as soon as the trees begin to interfere, 
before the lower limbs have been killed. Thinning should ordinarily be 
accomplished by removing every other row diagonally, first having deter- 
mined which way will leave the largest number of sound trees. 

Age and yield. — The maximum yield in Wayne county seems to come 
at 44 years after planting. This age will doubtless be greater in the future, 
for good care seems to give a greater gain in the longevity of the trees 
than in the yearly yield. 

Some orchards planted nearly a century ago are still profitable, but 
a large number of the neglected orchards that were planted about 
forty years ago will be of little value in twenty years. In the north 
part of the county, some young orchards are being planted to meet this 
contingency. 

Drainage problems. — About eight per cent of the orchards need drain- 
age throughout. Thirty per cent need drainage in part of their area. 
The greatest loss from poor drainage is not in the damage to entire 
orchards, but in the small undrained places that occur in many orchards. 

Fifty-four orchards in Walworth township were reported as need- 
ing drainage. These gave 42 bushels less yield per acre than the 
average of the township. 

Poor drainage not only affects the vigor of the tree directly, but it 
encourages canker, collar rot, etc. Land that is well drained for grain 
crops may not be well drained for apples. 

Soils. — The loamy soils are the best for apple production, but good 
apple crops are grown on quite diversified soils. The treatment that the 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 359 

orchard receives is far more important than the kind of soil. This 
treatment must vary to some extent with the type of soil. A good 
apple soil in Wayne county may be said to be one that is well drained 
and deep. 

Site and aspect. — The elevation above the surrounding country does not 
have a marked effect on the yield. 

The easterly slopes give considerably better yields than the westerly, 
probably owing to the strong west winds. 

Enemies. — The most serious enemies of the apple are the scab fungus 
and the codlin-moth. Both of these can be controlled by spraying. 

The collar rot or King disease is a rot that kills the bark at the sur- 
face of the ground. It is worst on Kings, attacking nearly all the 
mature trees. It is also bad on the Spitzenburg and occurs to some 
extent on all varieties. It is usually worst on poorly drained soil. 
Little can be done except to treat the wounds as any wound should 
be treated. But the trouble can be avoided by planting hardy stocks, as 
the Spy, and top-working to King. If this is done, the trouble furnishes 
no reason whatever for abandoning the King apple. 

Canker is a disease attacking the limbs. It is doing considerable 
damage in one-fifth of the orchards of the county. If the trees had 
been well cared for, it would seldom have secured a foothold, except 
in the Twenty Ounce. It can be overcome, except in extreme cases, 
by pruning out the diseased limbs, spraying the limbs with Bordeaux 
mixture, and, most important of all, putting the trees in a healthy 
growing condition. 

Evaporating apples. — Wayne county is the home of the apple-evap- 
orating industry. The proportion of the crop that is evaporated varies 
from year to year, but averages about seventy-five per cent. Some 
growers pick the best apples to barrel, others shake off the entire crop 
for evaporating. In 1902 the entire crop was thus shaken from the trees 
in 45 per cent of the orchard area. A much greater profit would usually 
be made if the orchard were so managed as to produce a really No. 1 
apple, and if more of these were then sold in barrels. 

Yields. — The average yields per acre for mature orchards have been : 
1900, 252 bushels; 1901, 34 bushels: 1902, 222 bushels. 

Income per acre. — The gross average incomes per acre from mature 
trees have been: 1900, $37.80; 1901. $14.28: 1902, $48.18. 



CONDENSED CONCLUSION. 

Tillage, fertilization, pruning and spraying are the chief factors 
that enter into good care of an orchard. One or more of these may 
sometimes be omitted or poorly done without any serious results. 
To some extent tillage may replace fertilizers, or vice versa. A thrifty 
orchard may resist the attacks of disease. Some years there are few 
insects or fungi, so that spraying is not so much needed. A farmer fre- 
quently gets good results from some one of these factors and becomes 
so impressed w«th its importance that he makes a hobby of it, to the 
exclusion of all the others. But the most successful apple-grower is the 
man who keeps a proper balance between all four agencies and does not 
expect good care in one respect to make up for neglect in other ways. 
There is not a recommendation in this report that has not been success- 
fully carried out by some growers ; but few men have given attention to 
all the questions, though some of the most successful have come very 
near to doing so. 

But these factors are not all. The successful man must study; he 
must learn something of the life processes of the apple-tree ; he must 
know the most serious insect and fungous diseases, and why certain 
treatment is effective in combating them ; he must know something of 
the drainage, humus and other soil problems. 

No set of rules can cover all these points. The apple-grower must 
go into the orchard and get acquainted with his trees. As one farmer 
expressed it, he must go into the orchard occasionally and say to his 
trees, " Good morning ! Is there anything that you would like to-day?" 
There are many more or less successful farmers who never really see 
the apple-tree — they see only the crop. Any treatment that will 
temporarily increase the crop seems to them to be good, but this very 
treatment may be destroying the prospects for future crops. 

Nor is success in orcharding wholly dependent on a large crop. 
There is a business side to the question. Does it pay to grow cheap 
apples to be evaporated or to be sold at the lowest market price, or 
would it pay better to grow a first-class article that costs more and 
then commands the highest price? A few men in each county are 
known as growers of good apples. Some other men grow just as 
good apples and yet have no reputation. Sometimes it is because 

360 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 361 

their " firsts *' and "seconds " all get into one barrel, sometimes it is 
because the growers are not known. The grower of good apples should 
establish a business reputation that will bring buyers to him and make 
a competition for his product. 

Last of all, let me urge the advisability of keeping an account with 
the orchard and with the other important crops (as shown on page 297). 
See which crops really pay. If the apple orchard proves to be the most 
profitable crop, then give it first attention. 

BULLETINS FOR APPLE-GROWERS. 

The most progressive fruit-grower studies his business not only in his 
own orchard but in every way possible. To keep abreast of the progress 
made in orchard management he must know what other orchardists are 
doing and must be familiar with the results of experiment station work. 
The following are a few of the many free bulletins that are available to 
New York farmers, so long as the issues remain in print. 

The following bulletins are sent free to residents of New York on 
application to the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, 
Ithaca, N. Y. : 

Bulletin 73. The Cultivation of Orchards. 
93. The Cigar Case-Bearer. 

142. The Codling-Moth. 

153. Impressions of Fruit-Growing Industries. 

155. The San Jose Scale. 

170. Tent Caterpillars. 

198. Orchard Cover-Crops. 

207. Pink Rot, an Attendant of Apple-Scab. 

214. The Ribbed Cocoon-Maker of the Apple. 

216. Spraying for Wild Mustard and the Dust Spray. 

217. Spray Calendar. 

Bulletins in the following list are sent free to residents of New York 
on application to the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, 
Geneva, N. Y. : 
Bulletin 122. The Pistol Case-Bearer. 

163, 185. The New York Apple-Tree Canker. 

167. A Fruit Disease Survey of the Hudson Valley in 1899. 

170. Diseases Injurious to Fruits. 



362 Bulletin 226. 

Bulletin 191. A Fruit Disease Survey of Western New York in 1900. 
196. Spraying in Bloom. 
220. Two Unusual Troubles of Apple Foliage : Frost Blisters ; 

and Spotting and Dropping of Leaves Caused by 

Spraying. 
235. Two Decays of Stored Apples. 
239. Thinning Apples. 
248. New York Apples in Storage. 

258. A Study of the Chemistry of Home-Made Cider Vinegar. 
193, 194, 202, 209. 213, 228. San Jose Scale. 

Publications sent free on application to the Secretary of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. : 

Soil Survey of the Lyons Area, New York. 
Extract from the Yearbook for 1901. 

230. Commercial Apple Orcharding. 
Extract from the Yearbook for 1902. 

266. Top-Working Orchard Trees. 
Extract from the Yearbook for 1903. 

317. Relation of Cold Storage to Commercial Apple Orcharding. 

Farmers Bulletins. 

Bulletin 113. The Apple, and How to Grow It. 

127. Important Insecticides: Directions for their Preparation 

and Use. 
146. Insecticides and Fungicides : Chemical Composition and 

Effectiveness of Certain Preparations. 
161. Practical Suggestions for Fruit Growers. 
181. Pruning. 

187. Drainage of Farm Lands. 
208. Varieties of Fruit Recommended for Planting. 



PART II 

THE APPLE INDUSTRY OF ORLEANS COUNTY 
NEW YORK 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans 
County, New York, 



By G. F. Warren. 

General statement and acknowledgments. — This Bulletin is a supplement 
to Bulletin 226, " The Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County," which 
discussed apple-grow- 
ing in both counties, 
the conclusions in it 
being based on obser- 
vations made in both 
counties and on the 
statistics gathered from 
Wayne county. In 
this Bulletin the tables 
from Orleans county 
are presented, but the 
discussions are not re- 
peated except when 
new or contradictory 
conclusions are shown. 
It is therefore expected 
that the reader of this 
Bulletin will have at 
hand Bulletin 226. 

Nearly half of the 

field work was done 

by Mr. Christian Biies, 

who not only assisted 

in the investigation 

but gave many valu- 

, , . , Fig. 158. — Twenty-ounce. A profitable apple ivhere 

able suggestions on the thg frw h wU CQred foy 

methods of work. 

I wish to thank the five hundred or more farmers who so willingly 

placed at our disposal the statistics about their orchards and told us of 

their successes and failures. I might mention in particular the help given 




464 



Bulletin 229. 



by S. W. Smith, William A. Lafner, J. N. Stebbins, Albert Wood and 
many others, but no such list can be properly given without including 
four or five hundred names. The acknowledgments must therefore be 
to the apple-growers of Orleans county. 

The field work. — The work of gathering the statistics was done between 
August 24 and October 22, 1904. This later period than was spent in 
Wayne county allowed a more careful study of the condition of the fruit 
at the time of picking and the relation of the quality to prices. The yields 

for 1904 were secured by 
letter. A total of 564 
orchards, containing 4,881 
acres, were examined. 

Methods of work. — 
The field equipment, as in 
Wayne county, consisted 
of a soil auger, camera, 
notebook, blanks for re- 
ports, bicycle, etc. Mr. 
Biies and myself were 
together each evening and 
worked together in the 
field frequently, so that 
the work was kept on a 
uniform basis. 

The methods of mak- 
ing computations were 
carried out as formerly described, except that in computing average yields 
all bearing orchards were included. But there was an average of only 
eight orchards set since 1879 whose yields were secured, and these yields 
were not low (table 17). The average yields are therefore comparable 
with those in Wayne county for orchards set before 1880. In all com- 
putations, a barrel is taken as three bushels. This is a little high, but is 
necessary as it is the measure generally used by farmers. 

In Carlton township, which is the middle one of the three townships 
bordering on Lake Ontario, every orchard as large as five acres, and most 
of those above four acres, were examined. In the remainder of the 
county most of the orchards above eight or ten acres and many smaller 
ones were examined, the average size being nine acres. The investigation 
covered the entire county. 




Fig. 159. — Baldwin: The leading commercial apple 
of Western A T cu> York. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 465 



Area planted to apples. — The census of 1900 shows that there were at 
that time 629,401 apple-trees of bearing age in Orleans county. Since 
the average number of trees per acre is 41.5 (table 15), the total area 
of trees of bearing age must have been about 15,200 acres. Adding to 
this the 1,300 acres of young trees (8 per cent of the total area, see table 
16), gives a total of 16,500 acres of apples in the county. 

The entire area of the county is 399 square miles, so that there is an 
average of 41 acres of apples per square mile. The area of improved 
land in farms is 205,279 acres.* Of this area, 6.9 per cent is planted to 
apples. Nearly all of the orchards are in the north two-thirds of the 
county. A total of 1,530 acres were examined in Carlton township, which 
has an area of about forty-six square miles. The area of apples in this 
township is probably nearly 2,000 acres, as only orchards as large as four 
or five acres were examined. 

Tillage. 
Acreage of tilled and untitled orchards. — About eleven per cent of the 
mature orchards have been tilled every year for at least five years ; 33 
per cent have been in sod for at least the same period ; the others have 
been tilled more or less (table 1). 

Table r. 

Treatment prior to IQ04. Mature orchards. 



TREATMENT. 



No. orchards. 


No. acres. 


Per cent. 


29 


22,2 


5 


34 


260 y 2 


6 


97 


857'A 


20 


186 


1,617 


37 


65 


635 


15— 


92 


770^ 


18 



Tilled 10 years or more 

Tilled 5 years or more 

Tilled over half of preceding 5 years 
Sod over half of preceding 5 years. . 

Sod 5 years or more 

Sod 10 years or more 



Twenty per cent were tilled in 1904. About half of the remainder were 
pastured and half not pastured. A marked contrast with Wayne county 
is shown in the very large area pastured by sheep. The area given as 
pastured by cattle is doubtless too small, as some orchards that had been 
used as a cattle pasture early in the season were not so used at the time 
of the survey, and were not reported as having been so used (table 2). 

Thirty-six per cent of the young orchards were in sod in 1904, and 
9 per cent were sown to grain crops. The remaining 55 per cent were 

* Twelfth Census, 1900. 



466 



Bulletin 229. 



tilled, usually planted to beans or potatoes (table 3). This shows that 
many farmers are coming to realize that the young- orchard should not 
be considered as one field in the crop rotation, and that tilled crops are 

Table 2. 
Treatment in 1904 of mature orchards. 



TREATMENT. 



No. orchards. No. acres 



Per cent. 



Tilled with cover-crop 

Tilled without cover-crop . . 

Sod, sheep pasture 

Sod, sheep and hog pasture 

Sod, hog pasture 

Sod, cattle pasture 

Sod, grass cut and left 

Sod, not included in above . 

Total tilled 

Total sod 



13 
89 

102 
30 
62 
20 
56 

141 



127^ 

745^ 
981 
249 
432^ 
192^ 
627% 
. 132 



102 
411 



873 
3,614^ 



3 

17 
22 

5 
10 

4 
14 
25 



20 
80 



the only ones that should be grown in it. Needless to say, the young 
trees that are in sod are usually making a very poor growth as compared 
with that of those that are tilled. Probably more damage is done to 
young trees by sod than by all other causes. Some of those that are in 

Table 3. 
Treatment in 1904 of young trees — set since 1895. 



TREATMENT. 



Tilled, planted to a cultivated crop 

Tilled, sowed to grain crop 

Sod, hay cut 

Sod, grass and weeds not cut 



No. orchards. No. acres. 



31 

5 
9 
4 



216^ 

33Vz 
107 

33 l A 



Per cent. 



55 

9 

27 

9 



sod are plowed along the rows or are mulched around the trees so that 
the damage is lessened. 

Yields of tilled and sod orchards. — As shown by table 4, the five-year 
average yield of orchards that have been tilled ten years is 86 per cent 
larger than that of those that have been in sod ten or more years, and those 
tilled five years gave 34 per cent larger yield than those in sod five years. 
This computation, like all others, was made for Carlton and for the 
remainder of the county separately. But the conclusions shown were the 
same in each case, therefore the totals only are given. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 467 

Undoubtedly the tilled orchards have fared better in general care. 
Neglected orchards are likely to be -in sod. This table therefore shows 
too great a difference in favor of tillage. To eliminate other factors, 
another computation has been made in which all neglected orchards were 
thrown out. This excluded about half of the orchards that are regularly 
in sod and excluded some from all classes. 




FlG. 160. — York Imperial. Prized in Pennsylvania as a winter apple. 
Of questionable value in Orleans county. 

Table 5 includes only those orchards that are fairly well cared for. 
All have received some fertilizer and some spraying. None are badly 
damaged by lack of fertilization, spraying, or drainage, or badly damaged 
by disease or other causes. Of these fairly well cared for orchards, those 
that have been tilled ten or more years gave 45 per cent larger yield than 
those in sod ten or more years, and those tilled five or more years gave 
15 per cent larger yield than those in sod the same period. This tabula- 
tion doubtless gives too favorable a showing for the sod orchards, tor 
some of the diseased ones thrown out were diseased because of the sod 
treatment. The real difference due to tillage is probably between the 
differences shown by tables 4 and 5. 



468 



Bulletin 229. 















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An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 469 



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Bulletin 229. 



Effect of tillage on the quality of the fruit. — Apples from sod orchards 
are frequently more highly colored than are those from tilled orchards, 
but are not necessarily so. Tillage may make it a little more difficult 
to secure good color, but there are many tilled orchards that give highly 
colored fruit. Drainage and feeding are important factors. 




Fig. 161. — Jonathan. Combines high quality and handsome appearance. 

Many farmers think that apples from the sod orchards have a better 
flavor and keep better. If these views are correct, the differences are 
certainly not very great. The increased size of apples from tilled 
orchards usually more than makes up for any such differences. Apple- 
buyers frequently discuss this question, sometimes favoring one kind of 
treatment and sometimes the other. But more conclusive than their dis- 
cussions or than farmers' opinions are the actual prices paid. It will be 
seen by tables 4 and 5 that, if there is any difference, the tilled orchards 
exceed the untilled by a slightly larger per cent in average income than 
in average yield. That is, the ruling prices per bushel have been a little 
higher from tilled orchards than from those in sod. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 471 

Methods of sod treatment. — Sod orchards pastured with sheep and 
hogs have given a much better average yield than those not pastured, or 
than those pastured by cattle (table 6). Probably one reason for the 
extremely low average for those pastured by cattle is that in Orleans 
county, cattle are not commonly allowed in any but neglected orchards. 
Table 6 includes orchards that have been in sod most of the time as well 
as those regularly in sod. By comparing with the corresponding years 
in table 4. it will be seen that none of the methods of sod treatment equals 
tillage in average yields. The corresponding yield for tilled orchards, 

Table 6 
Yield in bushels with various methods of sod treatment. 



METHOD OF 


1902. 


1903. 


I904. 


TREATMENT. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. 
acres. 


Av'ge 
yield. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. 
acres. 


Av'pre 
yield. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. 
acres. 


Av'pe 

yield. 


Pastured with hogs. . . . 
Pastured with sheep. . . 
Pastured with cattle. . . 
Not pastured 


34 

44 

9 

70 


236 

447 l A 

92 
670^ 


280 
288 

99 
209 


34 
85 
10 
98 


233 
854 % 
102 Ji 
887 


264 
228 
168 
208 


21 

37 

7 

60 


131 

343 

69 

567 


393 
309 
192 

235 





Three-year average per acre : 

Pastured with hogs 312 bushels 

Pastured with sheep 308 

Pastured with cattle 153 

Not pastured 217 



that is the three-year average for orchards that have been tilled five to ten 
years and more, is 350 bushels. 

A few growers are trying the so-called mulch method of cutting the 
grass and throwing it around the trees. Theoretically this would seem 
to be undesirable since the great demands for water and plant-food 
that are made by growing the hay come at the time when the apple-trees 
need the moisture and food for their own growth. But practically there 
is a much more serious difficulty. There are comparatively few orchards 
in which anything like enough hay can be grown to furnish an efficient 
mulch. For most orchards, additional straw and hay must be obtained 
from outside the orchard. 

Does tillage pay? — After examining tables 4 and 5, and the correspond- 
ing tables from Wayne county, one is forced to the conclusion that if 
there is a method of sod treatment that is as good as tillage, the average 
farmer has certainly not yet found it. Both counties show that the best 



472 



Bulletin 229. 



sod treatment thus far generally tested is to pasture with sheep or hogs 
and give liberal applications of barnyard manure. 

There are many sod orchards that are giving good yields. Some of 
these are producing well, but are having their period of productiveness 
shortened by sod ; some are yielding well and are thrifty. Of the seventy 
orchards that have been in sod five to ten years or more and that reported 




Fig. 162. — Fall Pippin. One of the old household favorites. 

the yields for 1904, only 14 gave yields equal to the average of the tilled 
ones. The average proportion for the five years has been the same. 
That is, one in five of the sod orchards give as good yields as the average 
tilled ones. Not nearly this number could be said to be very successful. 
To be called successful the orchard should certainly be in the better half 
of the tilled ones — not merely equal to the average, which has been low- 
ered by the neglected orchards. Allowing for the trouble and cost of 
plowing, the loss of pasture, etc., it would still seem that about four-fifths 
of the sod orchards would pay better if tilled. 

Many who have tried tillage have made the mistake of tilling too late 
in the season. Much of the objection to the practice would not exist were 
it not for this mistake. If a cover-crop is sown early in July, the trees 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 473 



may be somewhat checked in growth so that the fruit will color better, 

and a good floor can usually be secured by picking time. If buckwheat 

is sown, it should be harrowed down before picking time. If clover is 

sown, it may need to be mowed. Some very successful orchards are 

tilled until early in 

July, then seeded to 

clover. The next year 

this clover is mowed 

and left as a mulch to 

be plowed under the 

following spring. This 

gives an alternation of 

tillage and light clover 

sod. 

From the results ob- 
tained in the few 
orchards where it has 
been systematically 
tried, it seems safe to 
strongly recommend 
to those who wish to 
continue sod treatment 
that they go through 
the orchard once each 
way with a disc or 
cutaway harrow early 
in every spring. This 

does much to prevent the formation of a compact soil and a tough sod. 
It may be advisable to sow a little clover at the time of discing. 




Fig. 163. — BclOloivcr. 



An old-time favorite of 
quality. 



rood 



Fertilization. 

Fertilizers used.- — Formerly large numbers of orchards were neglected, 
and received little fertilization of any kind, but now 93 per cent are 
reported as receiving some kind of fertilization. Not all of these receive 
adequate applications, for this area includes all that are reported as having 
received any, regardless of the amount and frequency. The most striking 
feature is the liberal use of barnyard manure by the majority of the grow- 
ers. It is used by 91 per cent. A very large number report that all the 
manure produced on the farm is used in the orchard. 



474 



Bulletin 229. 



Commercial fertilizers, including wood ashes, have been used in 24 per 
cent of the area. These are usually applied in combination with manure. 
Fertilizers without nitrogen or low in nitrogen are usually used. Some- 
times the phosphorus is also omitted. 

Cover-crops. — Cover-crops were reported as having been used in 3 per 
cent of the area examined. They have probably been used more than 
this indicates. Many kinds have been tried, but the majority of the men 
who use cover-crops favor common red clover or buckwheat. Crimson 
clover, rye, vetch, rape, alfalfa and others have been used to some extent. 

Table 7. 

Summary of fertilizers used on mature orchards. 



FERTILIZER. 


UsED ALONE. 


Used with other 
fertilizers. 


Total. 


Xo. or- 
chards. 


No. acres 


Per 

cent. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. acres. 


Per 

cent. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. acres. 


Per 
cent. 


None 














43 
457 
108 

15 


304K 

3,755 
999 

1 33) 2 


7 
9i 
24 

3 


Barnyard manure 

Commercial fertilizers. 
Green manure — cover- 


350 
II 


2, 738 
83>4 


66 

2 


107 
97 

15 


1,017 
915^ 

133^ 


25 
22 

3 











Kinds of commercial fertilisers. 



FERTILIZER. 



Potash or ashes 

Phosphorus with potash or ashes 
Complete fertilizer. . . 




No. acres. 



414 
158 
404 



As already suggested under tillage, it would seem to be desirable to 
replace some of the manure by tillage and cover-crops. In estimating 
the profitableness of various methods, farmers usually underestimate the 
cost and value of manure. But unless tillage and cover-crops are used, 
the danger is that too little rather than too much manure will be applied. 
A very few orchards have possibly received a little too much. 

Pruning. 

In about half of the orchards the pruning is good or fair. In 1 1 per 
cent it is entirely neglected. Very long stubs were left in 17 per cent, 
and rather bad stubs in 7 per cent more. In 7 per cent the large lower 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 475 



limbs have been cut off because the trees were too close together. Paint 
has been used on the wounds in 16 orchards. 

The points that need to be considered are the same as those in Wayne 
county, and arc discussed in Bulletin 226. They are: 

1. The branches should be cut close to the limb. 

2. Large limbs should not be removed unless it is necessary. If the 
trees are too close together, half of them should be removed rather than 
spoil the entire orchard by cutting off the large lower limbs. 

3. Paint should be used on all large wounds, and renewed yearly until 
the wounds are healed over. 

4. Pruning should be done every year rather than give the occasional 
" thorough trimming." 

Table 8. 
Pruning. 



QUALITY OF WORK: OTHER FEATURES. 



No. orchards. 



No. acres. 



Per cent. 



Good 

Fair 

Poor or neglected 

None 

Tops too dense 

Long stubs left 

Few stubs left 

Large limbs removed because trees too close 

together 

Paint used on wounds 



121 

175 
161 

57 



931^ 
1,424 
1,562 

503 



21 

32 

35 
11 



65 

104 

40 

4i 
16 



520 

746^ 

406 

307 l A 



12 

17 
9 

7 

2 



Spraying. 

Methods of spraying. — Nearly all the orchards are sprayed occasion- 
ally. Sixty-one per cent were sprayed in 1904. Only two of the orchards 
set since 1895 were sprayed in 1904. One-fifth of the area was sprayed 
with arsenic and Bordeaux mixture. Nearly all the remainder was 
sprayed with Paris green and Bordeaux. A few growers used prepared 
mixtures, but none were seen who found these satisfactory (tables 9 
and 10). 

Effects of spraying on yields and prices. — Spraying has practically 
eliminated the canker-worm from the county. At present the codlin- 
moth and the apple-scab (commonly called " the fungus ") are the most 
serious enemies. In 1904 fungous troubles were worse than usual, though 
not as serious as in some years. 



476 



Bulletin 229. 



In order to get an accurate estimate of the damage done by the scab, 
the percentage of the apples thus affected was determined for each orchard. 
This was done by counting and examining apples in each. Every apple 
that had any scab spots was counted as scabby. Those orchards given in 
table 1 1 as having 0-5 per cent scab gave practically perfect fruit — the 
real No. 1 apples. Those reported as having 6-25 per cent scab gave 



Table 9. 
Spraying, IQ04. 



HOW SPRAYED. 



No. orchards. 



No. acres. 



Per cent. 



Seldom or never sprayed 

Usually sprayed, but not sprayed in 1904. 

Sprayed once 

Sprayed twice 

Sprayed three times 

Sprayed four times 



64 
143 

98 
126 

53 
7 



Total unsprayed. 
Total sprayed... 



207 

284 



565 
1,226 

944 Y* 
1,249^ 
521 
58 



1. 791 

2, 773 



12 

27 
21 
28 
11 
1 



39 
61 



Table 10. 
Kinds of sprays used in 1904. 



TREATMENT. 



N'o. orchards. 



Paris green and Bordeaux mixture. 

Arsenic and Bordeaux mixture 

Prepared mixtures 

Bordeaux mixture only 

Paris green only 



219 

46 

6 

3 
1 



No. acres. 



424 

41 
32 

7 



Per cent. 



79 

18 

2 

1 



very good fruit. From those having over 50 per cent scab, it was prac- 
tically impossible to put up real No. 1 apples. 

In practically no unsprayed orchards were over half of the apples free 
from scab. In nearly all such orchards about ninety per cent were 
scabby. In 56 per cent of the orchards sprayed once, the apples were not 
over half scabby. The percentage decreased with the number of spray- 
ings. Over half of those orchards that were sprayed three times were 
practically free from scab. 

These facts will not agree with the opinions of some of the owners 
of unsprayed or poorly sprayed orchards. Many such men do not recog- 
nize the scab ; or if they do, they think that when the diseased tissue peels 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 477 

off, leaving the rusty-colored spot, the scab has left the apple (Bulletin 
226, page 2>Z7). A still larger number see the scab but underestimate 
its importance, thinking that the scabby apples keep as well as others and 
are therefore as good. Such apples do not often keep as well as others, 
but the serious error in this reasoning is that it leaves out of account 
the value of beautv in selling fruit. Even if the scabby apple should 



Table ii. 

Relation of spraying to the apple-scab fungus in 1904. 





0-5 St Scab. 


6-25 % Scab. 


26-50^ Scab. 


METHOD 
OF SPRAYING. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. 
acies. 


I'erct. 
of ihe 
area. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. 
acres. 


Perct. 
of the 
area. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. 
acres. 


Perct. 
of the 
area. 




2 

35 
3i 

5 


II 

340 
295^ 
33 


I 

57 
57 


21 

44 

13 

I 


228 

430 

169 

15 


25 

35 
32 
26 


5 
26 
26 

7 

1 


55 
272^ 

245 l A 
42^ 
10 


3 
30 


Sprayed twice 

Sprayed three times.. . 
Sprayed four times .... 


20 

8 
17 


Total 


73 


679^ 




79 


842 




65 


625^ 









Table ii — (Concluded). 



METHOD OF STRAYING. 



Unsprayed 

Sprayed once 

Sprayed twice 

Sprayed three times 
Sprayed four times. 

Total 



51-75 % Scar. 



No. or- 
chards. 



41 



No. 
acres. 



170 

117 
123^ 
4 



4I4>< 



Perct. 
of the 
area. 



10 

13 

IO 

I 



76-icojC Scab. 



No. or- 
chards. 



169 

34 

9 

1 



213 



No. 
acres. 



1551 
292 

I03>^ 
10 



1956^ 



Perct. 
of the 
area. 



87 
32 



happen to keep as well and should taste as well, it would still be a cheap- 
selling product. To be No. 1, apples must be attractive to the eye. Many 
growers have honestly considered that their fruit was practically free 
from scab, when not more than five or ten apples in a hundred were 
free from it. In order that the question of opinion might not enter into 
the work, the percentage of scab was determined by counting. Table II 
shows the results. 



478 



Bulletin 229. 



Relation of spraying to yields and prices. — Table 12 shows that the 
sprayed orchards give a much higher yield and income per acre than the 
unsprayed. The difference in income is due to the larger yield, larger 
percentage of the crop barreled and higher price per barrel. It will be 
seen that those sprayed three times gave 31 per cent larger yield and 51 
per cent larger income than those not sprayed. 



Table 12. 

Spraying and yield and income per acre, 1904. 



HOW SPRAYED. 



Yields. 



No. or- 
chards. 



No. acres. 



Av'ge 

yield. 



Per 

cent. of 

crop 
barrel- 
ed. 



Incomes. 



No. or- No. acres. .Av'ge 
cnards. income. 



Unsprayed 

Sprayed once 

Sprayed twice 

Sprayed three times 
Sprayed four times. 



100 

49 

90 

40 

6 



9i7^ 
504 
921^2 
426 
43 



245 
307 
343 

2,22 

569 



71 
71 

75 
83 

77 



94 
46 
84 
37 
6 



S6i/ 2 
468 

864 y 2 
406 
43 



$92 
116 
127 

139 
211 



Table 13. 
Spraying and yield and income per acre, 1904. Orchards all well cared for. 



HOW SPRAYED. 



Unsprayed 

Sprayed once 

Sprayed twice 

Sprayed three times 
Sprayed four times. 



Yields. 



No. or- 
chards. 



43 
33 
70 

27 
6 



No. acres. 



38l 

352 
701 

247^ 
43 



Av'ge 
yield. 



328 
346 

374 
414 

569 



Per 

cent of 

crop 
barrel- 
ed. 



66 
74 
78 
87 
77 



Incomes. 



No. or- No . acr e S . .Av'ge 
chards. income. 



54 
30 
64 
25 
6 



449^ 
316 

644 
236^ 
43 



$103 
139 
143 
184 
211 



A part of the difference in yield and income is due to other factors. 
The unsprayed orchards are likely to be somewhat neglected in other 
respects. To eliminate this factor, another classification was made after 
all neglected orchards were thrown out. 

Table 13 includes only those orchards that are fairly well cared for. 
They are not badly diseased or damaged from any cause. This shows 
a marked difference in the percentage of the crop barreled and in average 
yield and income; the average income per acre being: unsprayed, $103; 
sprayed once, $139; sprayed twice, $143; sprayed three times, $184. 
Allowing for the cost of the extra barrels required, for the cost of spray- 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 479 



ing and for a possible difference due to other causes than spraying, there 
is certainly enough difference left to give a large profit from the practice. 
The relation of the scab to the average yield and price. — It will be seen 
from table 1 1 that some of the orchards that were sprayed twice or three 
times had as much 
scab as some that 
were sprayed only 
once. Another clas- 
sification was made 
on the basis of 
results obtained, 
rather than on the 
number of spray- 
ings. Table 14 is 
a summary of 
these results, when 
the orchards were 
grouped according 
to the freedom 
from scab, regard- 
less of how that 
freedom was se- 
cured. As would 
be expected, this 
shows a greater difference than is shown by table 12. Those orchards that 
were practically free from scab gave 54 per cent larger yield and 61 per 
cent larger income than those with over three-fourths of the apples scabby. 
A large part of the difference in income is due to the fact that from the 




Fig. 164. — Ben Davis. The commercial standard of the 
Middle West. 



Table 14. 

Relation of scab to income and yields, IQ04. 



PER CENT OF SCAB. 



Average yield 

per acre — 

bushels. 



Average 

income per 

acre. 



Per cent 

of the crop 

barreled. 



0- 5 

6- 25 

26- 50 

5i- 75 
76-100 



382 
319 
325 
284 
248 



$143 
102 

105 
87 



81 

75 
72 
68 
70 



480 Bulletin 229. 

former, 81 per cent of the crop was barreled, while from the latter, only 70 
per cent was thus sold. The difference in yield is partly due to the 
poorer care given to unsprayed orchards, and is partly due to direct loss 
caused by worms and scab. The scab probably caused many apples to fall 
early in the season. Throughout the season it caused some apples to 
crack and drop. 

The time to spray. — As will be seen from table 11, nearly half of those 
farmers who sprayed only once accomplished little in preventing scab. 
One-sixth of those who sprayed twice accomplished little, still having over 
fifty per cent scab. Of the 95 orchards sprayed once, only two were 
practically free from scab; while of the 126 sprayed twice, 35 were prac- 
tically free from scab. None of the unsprayed orchards had less than 
25 per cent scab, but nine-tenths of those sprayed three times had less 
than this amount. 

The table seems to show that : 

1. All unsprayed orchards were badly infected with scab in 1904. 

2. Marked results were accomplished by one spraying in half the cases. 

3. While two sprayings were sufficient in 27 per cent of the orchards, 
three was the only safe number. 

4. Much of the spraying is done at such a time or in such a manner 
that it is of little value. 

Perhaps the most striking point in this table is the difference in results 
from the same number of sprayings. Some of the difference is prob- 
ably due to the weather conditions following the application, but most 
of it is due to thorough spraying at the right time as contrasted with 
careless work, or work done at the wrong time. 

In 1904 that fruit that was not sprayed immediately after blossoming 
was invariably scabby. This one spraying was not enough, but it was the 
most essential one. Farmers frequently put off spraying a few days 
because they are too busy. This, of all farm operations, must be done 
at the right time. The seeds (spores) of the scab grow when conditions 
are favorable. They do not wait for the farmer. Unlike weeds, they are 
not readily killed when once established. After the mycelium of the scab 
is within the apple it is safe from the influence of sprays. Since it 
must be killed by contact, it is evident that every apple must be sprayed 
on all sides. The results from spraying would be still more striking if 
only those orchards that were thoroughly sprayed at the right times were 
included. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 481 

Three sprayings are usually sufficient for the codlin-moth and scab 
in Western New York. The applications should be made : 
T. Just before the blossoms open. 

2. Immediately after the blossoms fall. 

3, Ten to 14 days after the second. 

Dulletin 226 gives a fuller discussion of scab and its treatment. 




Fig. 165. — Rome Beauty. Needs thinning and good care to give sice and color. 



Number of Trees per Acre. 
As in Wayne county, the trees in the old orchards were planted too 
close together. The favorite distance was 33 x t,t, feet. Half of all the 
orchards were planted at this distance. The average distance was 
32.4 x 32.4 feet. Only 5 per cent were over 35x35 feet. (In some 
orchards half of the trees have been cut out so that table 15 shows 13 
per cent over 35 x 35 feet.) 



482 



Bulletin 229. 



In the young- orchards, 40 x 40 feet is the commonest distance — 57 per 
cent are set in this way. The average distance is 36.6 x 36.6 feet, but this 
includes some that have been set more closely with the idea of removing 
half. 

Much damage has resulted in the old orchards from this close planting. 
In 347 acres, 8 per cent of the total area, half of the trees have been 
removed, but there is 15 per cent more in which half of the trees should 
be removed. That is, in one orchard in seven, half of the trees ought to 
be cut out. In some this should have been done 10 years ago. Some 

Table 15. 
Distance between trees. 





Trkes set before 1890. 


Trees set since 1895. 


DISTANCE APART. 


No. 

orchards. 


No. 
acres 


Per 

cent. 


No. 
orchards. 


No. 
acres. 


Per 
cent. 


Not over 25 x 25 feet 

26 x 26 to 30 x 30 

31x31 to 35x35 

36 x 36 to 40 x 40 


22 

1-24 
308 

37 
4 


143 
I,02I>^ 
2,667 

4M^ 
177 


3 

A 3 

60 

9 

4 


I 

I 

34 

3 


5 

35 

61 .», 

261^ 

25 


I 

9 
16 

67 
6 


41x41 to 50 x 50 







Average number of trees per acre. 
Average distance apart 



Trees set 
before 1890. 



4i-5 
3-2-4 



Trees set 
since 1895. 



32-5 
36.6 



have been almost ruined by the death of the lower limbs or by cutting 
these limbs off. But in nearly all of this 15 per cent it would still pay 
to cut out half of the trees. In those orchards where damage has not 
yet been done, the trees should be removed as soon as they begin to inter- 
fere, before they have been damaged. For a further discussion of 
thinning, see Bulletin 226. 

Age of the Orchards. 

Date of planting. — Comparatively few orchards were set before i860, 

and these orchards were usually small ones, set more for the purpose of 

supplying the family than for raising fruit to sell. Over eighty-one per 

cent of the orchards were planted between i860 and 1879. Planting then 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 483 

practically ceased till 1899. It then began again, and has constantly 
increased (table 16 ). The young orchards are largely in the north part 



Table 16. 
Number of orchards planted during cadi five-year period. The table includes only 
those orchards that are still living. Some of the earlier plantings have dis- 
appeared. 



DATE OF PLANTING. 



1805-19 (15 yoarsi 
1820-29 (10 years) 
1830-39 (10 years) 
1840-49 (10 years) 
1850-54 (5 years) . 

1855-59 

1860-64 

1865-69 

1870-74 

1875-79 

1880-84 

1885-89 

1890-94 

1895-99 

1900-04 



No. of 
orchards 



5 
10 

7 

8 

30 

19 

105 

129 

113 
69 

15 
5 

6 

43 



No. of acres. 



22 Ji 

5I# 
28^ 

32 

147'-' 
109 

937 
1,301 
939 M 

732 'A 
97% 
22 


356 



Per cent. 



0-5 
I . I 

0.6 

0.7 

3-i 

2.3 

19-5 

27.0 

19-5 

15-2 

2.0 

0-5 
0.0 
0.7 
7-4 



of the county. Fifteen per cent of the total orchard area of Carlton 
township has been set since 1895. 

Age and yield. — The t maximum yield seems to come at about 45 to 50 
years from the date of planting (table 17). The tabulations for Carlton 

Table 17. 
Age and yield per acre in bushels, entire county. 



DATE OF 


1900. 


1901. 


1902. 


PLANTING. 


No. or- 
chards 


No. acres. 


Av'tre 
yield. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. acres. 


A\-'ge 

yield. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. acres. 


Av'tre 
yield. 


1805-29 

1830-39 

1840-49 

1850-54 

1855-59 

1 860-64 

1865-69 . , , , 

1870-74 

1875-79 

1880-84 
1885-89 


4 
1 


20' 2 
2 ' , 
2 

45^ 

5i 
397 
383 

352'A 

208% 

23 

3 


140 
l80 
255 
415 
241 
24I 
260 
210 
225 
130 



4 20',' 


40 


7 

3 

4 

18 

17 

72 
87 
68 

47 
9 
3 


36', 
l8K 
16 
98 
101 

709 Y 
874 Y 
583 Y 
504'-' 

53^ 

11 


180 
86 


1 

8 
9 

4i 
37 
4i 
22 
2 
1 


1 2 

11 63 

12 67 

42 '■■ 434 
48 505', 

43 389 
28 249', 

3 32 
3 11 


50 

73 
84 
53 
55 
69 
80 
94 
68 


229 

351 
310 
271 
270 
248 
174 
165 
300 



4 8 4 



Bulletin 229. 



Table 17 — Concluded. 



DATE OF 
PLANTING. 



1805-29 
183O-39 
1840-49 

1850-54 

1855-59 
1860-64 
1865-69 
1870-74 

1875-79 
1880-84 
1885-89 



1903. 



No. or- 
chards. 



9 
2 

6 

19 
19 
91 

III 
97 

55 
12 

4 



No. acres 



48^ 

I2/ 2 

25 

104 

109 

860 

I,046>< 

831 
605 

8o>4 
18 



Av'ge 
yield. 



I84 
102 

252 
246 

339 
245 
255 
234 
207 
170 
216 



1904. 



No. or- 
chards 



I 

7 

14 
5i 
65 
57 
28 

5 
1 



No. acres 



25/ 



Av'ge 
yield. 



226 



90 

515 

688^ 

579/ 
305/3 

25/ 
4 



332 
355 
336 
283 
291 
210 
204 
125 



Five-year 
average. 



Av'ge 
age. 



81 
67 

57 
50 
45 
40 
35 
30 
25 
20 

15 



Av'ge 
yield. 



156 



175 
283 
266 
229 
225 
210 
179 

153 
l62 



No orchards set between 1890 and 1894 were seen. Those set since 1894 have 
given no yields worth considering. In no year has the average reached one-fourth 
of a bushel per acre. 

and for the remainder of the county, when made separately, show the 
maximum yields to come at this same age. 

There are several orchards from 75 to 100 years old that are still profit- 
able. There are other old trees, but few entire orchards. Most of the 
orchards have had trees set in at later dates, so that the orchards could 
not be used in this tabulation of yields. It must, of course, be remem- 
bered that most orchards set in the early part of the century have 
disappeared. 

Topography. 

Orleans county is divided into two rather distinct topographical regions : 
the old lake bed and a glaciated region. Over one-third of the county 
lies north of the ridge and was formerly the old lake bed. The ridge 
was a sand bar or the old lake shore line. This is the same ridge that 
crosses Wayne county and extends from Sodus Bay to Lewiston. 

The entire county is gently rolling. There are comparatively few hills, 
and these are not very high. The general slope is to the north, the rise 
being from 246 feet, the level of the lake, to about 650 feet, the general 
level in the south part of the county. The highest elevation in the county 
is 737 feet. 

In many parts of the county there is not enough slope to give good 
natural drainage. A strip north of the ridge about two miles wide is 
particularly level. In the south and southeast parts of the county there 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 485 

are considerable areas of swamp land. The south one-third has few 
orchards, largely because of the poor drainage. In all parts of the county 
drainage is the great soil problem. My impression is that one-third of 
the land should be underdrained. 

There are no such marked elevations or steep slopes as in Wayne 
county ; consequently, the question of the direction of the slope is of less 
importance. The most essential factor is good drainage. 




Fig. 166. — Sutton Beauty. Resembles highly colored Baldwin. A fairly 

early and regular bearer. 

Soils. 

The soil types. — There are four types of soil on which apples are com- 
monly grown: the Miami fine sand, Dunkirk clay, Miami stony loam, 
and Miami fine sandy loam.* Small areas of several other types of soil 
are devoted to apples. In general, the soils are quite free from stones ; 
but there are areas both north and south of the ridge that are quite stony. 

Miami fine sand. — This is a light brown or brownish-yellow fine sandy 
loam, underlain by a light yellow fine sand. It is generally free from 
stones, has a good natural drainage and is easily tilled. It occurs in all 
parts of the county, but is commonest south of the ridge and about half 
way between the ridge and the lake. 
* For soil analyses and further description of these types, see Bulletin 226. 



486 



Bulletin 229. 



Miami fine sandy loam. — This is a variation of the fine sand that con- 
tains enough fine particles to give it a slightly loamy character. 

Dunkirk clay. — This type is light brown, yellowish-brown, or some- 
times a reddish-brown clay loam, 8 to 10 inches deep, underlain by choco- 
late-colored, yellowish-brown, or reddish-brown clay. The subsoil is 



Table 18. 
Relation of yields to soil types. 





1900. 


1901. 


1902. 




No. or- 
chards. 


No. 
acres 


Aver- 
age 

yield. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. 
acres. 


Aver- 
age 

yield. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. 
acres. 


Aver- 
age 
yield. 


Miami fine sand 

Miami fine sandy loam 
Dunkirk clay 


52 
21 

63 

41 


476'/z 

152 

510 

431 


235 
3M 

277 
215 


67 
28 
80 

37 


638^ 
194 

405^ 


92 
89 
87 
67 


106 

47 
132 

72 


955 
379^ 
1 197 

7S7 l A 


253 
261 
256 
206 


Miami stony loam 



Table 18 — Concluded. 





1903. 


1904. 


Five-year 
aveiage 

yield. 




No. or- 
chards 


No. 
acres. 


Aver- 
age 

yield. 


No. or- 
chards. 


No. 
acres. 


Aver- 
age 

yield. 


Miami fine sand 


146 

6l 
165 

87 


1240 

500 y 2 

1514 
912^ 


242 

239 
221 
240 


80 

31 
112 

56 


755^ 
278^ 

I028>2 

623^ 


344 
331 
270 

315 


233 
247 
222 


Miami fine sandy loam .... 
Dunkirk clay 


Miami stony loam 


209 





frequently mottled. This type is most common near the lake, but occurs 
in all parts of the county. It is a heavy soil and very frequently needs 
drainage. 

Miami stony loam. — This soil is a brown stony loam containing from 
10 to 40 per cent of stone, and contains considerable sand. The subsoil 
is of a yellowish-brown color and contains less stone and sand. 

Yields on the different soil types. — Table 18 shows the average yields 
on the different soil types for the past five years. The sandy loam gave 
the largest five-year average, followed by the fine sand, then by the 
clay. But the differences are not great enough nor are they uniform 
enough in the different years to indicate any particular advantage for 
any type. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 487 

The trees on the sandy soils have a tendency to grow faster, and the 
fruit seems to grow a little larger. Orchards on the sandy soils are likely 
to be older before they begin to bear. A suggestion of this is given in 
the practice of girdling the trees. Some years ago large numbers of trees 
in orchards on the sandy soils were girdled by running a saw around the 
trunk. Few on the Dunkirk clay were so treated. 

The sandy soils are easier to work and are better drained than the 
heavier soils, but they require more manure. 

As a result of the work in both Orleans and Wayne county, it seems 
that while a light loam is doubtless best, any well-drained soil in these 
counties will raise good apples. The sandy soils are certainly better than 
most of the publications on apple-growing would lead one to believe. 





Fig. 167. — Maim. Greening type, keeps well, bears irregularly. 

Drainage. — A careful study was made of the effect of poor drainage 
on the orchards. The number of missing trees that had been killed by 
water was usually counted and a careful estimate was made of those that 
were badly damaged, and of those that, while not so seriously injured, 
would still probably pay for tile drainage. A loss of about 8 to 10 per 
cent can be traced to this cause ; 2.3 per cent of the trees have been killed 
and 9.4 per cent more have been so badly damaged that they are of very 
little value. According to the opinion of the inspectors, about 20 per cent 
would pay for underdrainage — all those marked poor, damaged or dead 
in table 19. This does not mean one orchard in five, but one-fifth of the 
area. Sometimes a whole orchard is damaged, but usually only a part 
of the orchard needs drainage. 

The subject of tile drainage is one that is worthy of careful thought 
on the part of Orleans county farmers, not only for orchards but for 
farm crops. 



4 88 



Bulletin 229. 



Rented Orchards. 

More than one-fourth of the orchards are rented, and in about half 
of these rented orchards the tenant changes every year (table 20). The 
rented orchards average much below those worked by the owners. Where 



Table 19. 
Drainage. 



CHARACTER OF DRAINAGE AND EFFECT ON TREES. 



Good 

Fair 

Poor 

Trees badly damaged. 
Trees killed 




the leases have been given for a longer period, the differences are not so 
great. Even if each tenant were a good orchardist, the rapid changes 
would soon spoil an orchard, for each man comes with different ideas of 
pruning and orchard management. 



Table 20. 
Orchards rented and orchards worked by owner. 





No. 
orchards. 


No. 
acres. 


Per 
cent. 


Rented 


143 

36» 


1,273 
3, 122 J^ 


27 
73 


Worked by the owner 






Years of te 


nnre. 







First year 

Second year 

Third and fourth years. 
Five or more years 




Per 

cent. 



49 
26 

10 

15 



Average tenure, 3.3 years. 

Enemies of the Apple. 
The scab probably caused more loss than all other enemies of the apple 
in 1904. It is discussed under Spraying. A leaf-spot, probably Phyllos- 
ticta, did much damage in many orchards, particularly where the drainage 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 489 

was poor. Much of the falling of the leaves, called the " yellow leaf," 
was due to this cause. The damage was not quite as serious as table 21 
might indicate. The diseases that attack the tree directly, as the canker 




Fig. 168. — Roxbury Russet. One of Mr. Albert Wood's " money-makers." 

and collar rot, are the worst enemies of the tree itself in orchards where 
these diseases occur. These and a few other diseases are fully discussed 
in Bulletin 226. 

Table 21. 

Principal enemies of the apple in 1904. 

Apple-scab (Vcnturia inaequalis) see table under Spraying. 

No. 

orchards. No. acres. 

Apple-scab on the leaves slight 53 440 

considerable 55 442 

serious 34 294^ 

Canker (Sphaeropsis malorum ) slight 92 809 

considerable 74 613J/2 

serious 49 450M2 

Collar rot slight 56 462 

considerable 22 204V2 

serious 16 159 

Leaf-spot (probably Phyllosticla sp.) slight 100 785 I /2 

considerable 127 105754 

considerable to serious 151 1429^ 

Codlin-moth (Carpocapsa pomonclla ) slight all orchards 

considerable 47 433 *-2 

serious 55 443^ 

Leaf-blister mites slight 11 115 

considerable 4 50^2 

serious 4 3i ! /2 

Injuries usually slight, due to the following, were also recorded: Leaf-hopper, 
borer, leaf-miner, leaf-sewer, bud-moth, aphid, tent caterpillar, tussock-moth, 
tortricid, cuculio, Aspidiotus forbes!, rose bug, fall web-worm, oyster shell bark- 
louse, woolly aphis, pink rot, San Jose scale, etc., etc. 



49Q 



Bulletin 229. 



Yields, Markets, Prices and Incomes. 

Yields. — The following tables will give some of the chief points. In 
computing yields one barrel is taken as three bushels. This is a little too 
high an estimate, but this basis had to be used as it is the one used by 
farmers and on which many of the yields were reported by them. 

Table 22. 

Approximate total yield for the entire county. 

Bushels. 

1889 (U. S. Census report) 321,726 

1899 (U. S. Census report) 1,391,630 

1900 3,663,000 

1901 958,000 

1902 3,770,000 

1903 ' 3,405,000 

1904 4,317,000 

The estimates for the last five years were obtained by multiplying the approximate 
area of 15,200 acres (page 465) by the average yields (table 23). To determine the 
number of barrels, compare these yields with the per cent barreled (table 26). The 
yield for 1904 may be too high as there may have been a tendency for those who 
had a small crop not to reply to the letter requesting that year's yield. 



Table 23. 
Average yield per acre in bushels. 



YEAR. 



1899 (U, 

1900 . . . 

1901 . . . 

1902 . . 
1903 . . . 
1904 . . . 



S. Census report) , 



No. . 
orchards. 



176 

212 
356 
485 
283 



No. acres. 



I,58l^ 

1,972 
3, I94>4 

4.344/^ 
2, 869K 



Average 
yield. 



92 
241 

63 
248 
224 
284 



Table 24. 

Average yield per tree. 

Bushels. 

1899 2.2 

1900 5-8 

1901 ' 1 -5 

1902 6.0 

1903 5-4 

1904 6.8 

Average 4-6 

These results were obtained by dividing the average yields per acre (table 23) by 
the average number of trees per acre (table 15). 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 491 



Table 25. 

Classification of yields. 



YIELD 

per acrh: in 

BUSHELS. 



to 100. . 
101 to 200. . 
201 to 300. . 
301 to 400. . 
401 to 500. . 
501 to 600. . 
601 to 700. . 
701 to 800. . 
801 to 900. . 
901 to 1000. 
Over 1000. . 



No. or- 
chards. 



36 
26 

53 
26 

23 

10 

1 

3 



1900. 



391 

252 

416;^ 

192^ 

i6 5 y 2 

88 

45 
21'A 



Per 

cent. 



24.8 
l6.0 
26.4 
12.2 
10.5 

5-6 

2.8 

1.4 



0.4 



1901. 



No. or- 
chards. 



Il8 

30 

8 
3 
3 



No. acres. 



1213 
264 

65; 
18 

27 



Per 
cent. 



76.4 

16.6 

4.1 

I . I 

i-7 



1902. 



No. or- 
chards. 



56 
93 
89 
53 
28 
22 
9 
4 



No. acres. 



6l2 

875 
805^ 

455 

240 a 
153 

63A 

i7 l A 



25 



Per 

cent. 



18.8 
26.9 
24.7 
14.0 

7-4 
4-7 
2.0 

0-5 



0.8 



Table 25 — Concluded. 



YIELD PER ACRE IN 
BUSHELS. 



to 100.. 
101 tO 200. . 
201 tO 300. . 

301 to 400. . 
401 to 500. . 
501 to 600. . 
601 to 700. . 
701 to 800. . 
801 to 900. . 
901 to 1000. 
Over 1000.. 



1903. 



No. or- 
chards. 



71 
124 

137 
62 

38 

13 

6 
1 

5 



No. acres. 



674 
1 169 
1248^ 

497/z 

292 

107^ 

37 

65 

28^ 



Per 
cent. 



16.4 
28.4 
30.3 
12. I 

7-i 
2.6 
0.9 
1.6 
0.7 



1904. 



No. or- 
chards. 



29 

49 

55 
52 

49 

22 
12 
5 
5 
2 
1 



No. acres. 



298^ 
538^ 
631 A 
508^ 
399^ 
239^ 
77 X A 
29 A 

2S% 

SA 



Per. 

cent. 



10.8 

19-5 

22.8 

18.4 

14.4 

8.7 

2.8 

1 . 1 

0.9 

0.3 

0.3 



Five-year 
average 
per cent. 



29.4 

21-5 
21 .7 

11. 6 

8.2 

4-3 
i-7 
0.9 

0.3 
0.2 
0.1 



Markets. — The characteristic feature of the apple industry in Wayne 
county is the evaporator; in Orleans county it is the sorting-table. In 
Wayne county a large part of the crop goes to the evaporator without 
sorting out the best apples ; in Orleans county too much of it is barreled. 
Few, if any, farmers in Orleans county run their own evaporators. This 
may partly explain the low price paid for apples to be evaporated (com- 
pare table 27 with table 44 in Bulletin 226), but the difference is largely 
due to the fact that in Orleans county only the culls and drops are usually 
dried. It seems that each county might learn much from the other. 
Wayne county should spray better and then sell more of the crop in 
barrels. Orleans county should sort much more closely and then keep 



49< 



Bulletin 229. 



the poor apples to evaporate. When put in the barrel, these only detract 
from the price paid and lower the reputation of the grower and of the 
county. There is at present a strong tendency to put up only one grade, 

the farmers thinking it 
is best to keep the poor 
apples at home. But in 
practice this frequently 
seems to mean that, 
instead of keeping the 
" seconds " at home, both 
" firsts " and " seconds " 
get into the one barrel. 
If apples were more 
carefully sorted, the culls 
would be worth more 
and might approach the 
price paid in Wayne 
county for apples to 
evaporate. If the evap- 
orators refused to pay 
this, some of the farmers might follow the Wayne county example, and 
put up their own evaporators. 

Perhaps no question is of greater importance than this one of the quality 
of the fruit. It is a county question. One man may raise the best of 
fruit and may sort and pack it carefully, but it is very hard for him to 
get its real value if his neighbors raise poor fruit. Buyers continually 
mention and honestly lament the fact that the price must be so largely 
determined for the community. The good apples sell the poor ones. It 




Fig. 169. — Wolf River, of the Alexander type. 



Table 26. 
Hozv the crop is disposed of. 



HOW MARKETED. 



Sold in barrels 

Sold in bulk 

Sold to evaporate 

Sold to vinegar factory. 
Otherwise disposed of . 



Bushels. 



325,821 

19, 700 

9,968 



Per 

cent. 



Bushels. 



112,962 
3,708 
4.440 



Per 
cent. 



Bushels. 



683,415 
59,131 
79, 406 



Per 
cent. 



83.I 

7.2 

9-7 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 493 

Table 26 — Concluded. 



HOW MARKETED. 



Sold in barrels 

Sold in bulk 

Sold to evaporate 

Sold to vinegar factory 
Otherwise disposed of . 



Bushels. 



819, 204 

32, 104 

128,096 

4,450 

7,200 



Per 

cent. 



82.7 

3-2 

12.9 

0.5 
0.7 



Bushels. 



627,231 
17,909 

153,109 
53,626 
17,720 



Per 

cent. 



72.1 
2. I 

I7.6 
6.2 
2.0 



To get the number of barrels, divide the number of bushels by 3. 

Those sold in bulk were nearly all sold to be barreled. 

The table indicates too small a proportion sold to dry or for vinegar as the farmers 
pay little attention to these. This is particularly true for crops before 1903. The 
1904 report is probably correct in this respect. 

Of the 72.1 per cent barreled in 1904, 64.3 per cent were "firsts" and 7.8 per cent 
were " seconds " or " drops." 

is exceedingly difficult to pay $2 per barrel to one man and then buy of 
his neighbor at $1.50. When a buyer offers these prices he is met by the 
unanswerable argument that, " My apples are as good as my neighbor's," 
and he is quite likely to offer $1.75 to both men. Every effort should 
be made to persuade the man who raises poor fruit, to improve his 
product not only for his own good but for the good of the whole county. 
The County Fruit Growers' Association is doing good work along this 
line. 

Prices. — Table 27 gives the average prices for the past five years. The 
price per barrel in 1904 is too low, for it includes only those that were 
sold when the reports were received, about January 25th. At this time 
18 per cent of those that were barreled were still held by the farmers. 
These were worth more than the average price. 

Table 27. 
Average price paid to the grower. 



Price per barrel 

Price per bushel sold in bulk 

Price per 100 pounds (2 bushels) sold 

to dry 

Price per 100 pounds (2 bushels) sold 

for vinegar 



pl.41 

.224 

.178 



$3-15 
.382 



51-79 
• 273 

.218 



$1.85 
.2,01 



154 



$1.46 
.260 

.194 

.148 



In 1904 the average price of firsts was $1.49 per barrel; of seconds and drops, $1.15. 



494 



Bulletin 229. 



Expenses and income per acre. — Table 28 gives the average gross 
income per acre for the past five years, and table 29 shows how these 
incomes were distributed. 




Fig. 170. — One of the original Hubbardstons of Western N. Y. in the 
orchard of Mr. T. B. Wilson, Hall's Corners, Ontario county, N. Y. 



Unfortunately, the average expense per acre can not be secured, as 
few farmers keep any record of expenses. The largest expense is tor 
barrels, picking, packing and marketing the fruit. One orchard of 9 
acres, for which an itemized account was kept in 1904, gave a total expense 
of $339.55 for tillage, pruning, fertilization, spraying, labor, etc. The 
cost of barrels, picking, etc., was $1,122.40 (Bulletin 226, page 297). This 
made an expense of $37.73 per acre for raising the crop up to the time 
of picking, not including interest on the land. Probably not over five to 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 495 



ten per cent of the orchards cost this much, hut it would pay to spend 
this amount in nearly all orchards. The average grower probably spends 
from one-fourth to one-half this amount. There are many neglected 
orchards in which there is practically no expense up to the time of picking. 
Table 30 gives an approximate estimate of the cost of barrels, picking, 
packing and marketing. It includes only that part of the crop that was 
•sold in barrels. Barrels cost 34 to 38 cents in 1904, cost as much or more 
in 1903, and cost less formerly. It costs about 25 cents per barrel for all 
labor connected with marketing, 10 to 12 cents of which is paid for 
picking. This gives a total cost of about 60 cents per barrel, which, of 
course, varies from year to year with the cost of labor and of barrels. 
It is probably a little low for 1903 and 1904. 

Table 28. 
Average gross income per acre. 

1900 $122 00 

1901 58 00 

1902 1 34 00 

1903 126 00 

1904 1 16 00 



Table 29. 
Classification of incomes. 







1900. 






1901. 






1902. 




INCOME 




















PER ACRE. 






















Mo. or- 




Per 


No. or- 




Per 


No. or- 




Per 




chards. 


No. acres. 


cent. 


chards. 


No. acres. 


cent. 


chards. 


No. acres. 


cent. 


$ to$ 25. . 


17 


169 


IO.4 


94 


877^ 


44.2 


29 


287^ 


8..S 


26 to 50. . 


24 


308^ 


19. 1 


32 


293^ 


14.8 


30 


341 X A 


10. 1 


Si to 75.. 


15 


109 


6.8 


21 


203 


10.3 


41 


371 A 


11. 


76 to 100. . 


27 


221)4 


13.7 


18 


213^ 


10.8 


38 


304 


9.0 


ior to 125. . 


28 


239 


14.8 


15 


H3^ 


5-7 


60 


558 


16. S 


126 to 150. . 


15 


130^ 


8.1 


II 


104 


5-3 


34 


297 


8.8 


151 to 175. . 


13 


90 


5-b 


5 


46 'A 


2.3 


3i 


307 


9.1 


1 76 to 200 . . 


18 


122^ 


7-7 


5 


38 


1.9 


25 


184 


5-4 


201 tO 225 . . 


7 


87/2 


5-4 


2 


7% 


0.4 


17 


139A 


4-i 


226 to 250. . 


4 


25 


i-5 


1 


18 


0.9 


12 


85 


2-5 


251 to 275.. 


4 


43 


2.7 


3 


32 


1.6 


10 


97 


2.9 


276 to 300. . 


4 


24 l A 


i-5 

0.4 








1 1 


84 
61 


2-5 
1.8 


301 to 325.. 


1 


6 


1 


8 


0.4 


6 


326 to 350. . 


2 


7 l A 


0-5 

0.6 








5 

7 
1 


35 
69,^ 
6 


1 


351 to 375. . 


1 


9 






2 1 


376 to 400. . 














401 to 425 . . 














2 


79 
17 
13 

7 
23 


2.3 
0.5 
0.4 


426 to 450. . 


1 


23 


i-4 








2 


451 to 475. . 














476 to 500. . 








3 
1 








Over $500.. . . 








6 


0.3 


2 


0.7 











496 



Bulletin 229. 



Table 29 — Concluded. 





1903. 




1904. 


Five-year 














average 


PER ACRE. 


No. 
orchards. 


Xo. acres. 


Per cent. 


No. 
orchards. 


No. acres. 


Per cent. 


per cent. 


$ to $ 25.. 


28 


206 


4-9 


17 


192 


6-5 


14.9 


26 to 50. . 


44 


504 


12.0 


37 


415 


14 


1 


14.O 


51 to 75.. 


50 


439^ 


IO.4 


36 


344^ 


II 


7 


10. 


76 to 100. . 


63 


680 y 2 


l6.2 


3i 


419^ 


14 


3 


12.8 


101 to 125. . 


62 


S7A l A 


13.6 


44 


434 


14 


8 


131 


126 to 150. . 


54 


515 


12.2 


26 


275^ 


9 


4 


8.8 


151 to 175.. 


47 


37i 


8.8 


30 


248 


8 


4 


6.8 


176 to 200. . 


34 


268/2 


6.4 


18 


283 


9 


6 


6.2 


201 tO 225. . 


29 


253/2 


6.0 


14 


116^ 


4 





4.0 


226 to 250. . 


18 


140K 


3-3 


15 


110/ 


3 


8 


2.4 


251 to 275.. 


12 


78 


1.9 


4 


i6y 3 





b 


1.9 


276 to 300. . 


8 


67/2 


1.6 


3 


nyi 





5 


1 .2 


301 to 325. . 


3 


22/ 


0.5 


4 


41 


1 


4 


0.9 


326 to 350. . 


5 


29 


0.7 


2 


15 





5 


0.5 


351 to 375.. 


3 


16 


0.4 


1 


5 





2 


0.7 


376 to 400. . 
401 to 425 . . 




6 


1 










0.1 


2 


9 


0.2 


2 


11 





4 


0.6 


426 to 450. . 
451 to 475.. 
476 to 500 . . 






0.3 
1 










0.2 




5 
I4# 










0. 1 




0.3 










0.3 












0.2 



















Table 30. 

Approximate cost per acre of barrels, picking, packing and marketing that part of 
the crop that was sold in barrels. 



1900 . 
1901 . 
1902 . 
1903. 
1904. 



No. barrels 
required. 



74 
19 
69 
62 
68 



Approximate 

cost. 



$44 
II 

41 

37 
41 




Fig. 171.— Baldwin. The standard apple of Western New York. 



SUMMARY. 



Extent of the survey. — Altogether, 564 orchards, containing 4,881 
acres, were examined in Orleans county in the summer and fall of 1904. 
There are approximately 16,500 acres of apples in the county. 

Varieties. — Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening are the leading vari- 
eties. Roxbury Russet, Tompkins King, Twenty-Ounce, Hubbardston, 
Northern Spy, Duchess of Oldenburg and a few other varieties, are also 
commonly grown but are all secondary in extent to the Baldwin and 
Greening. 

Tillage. — Eleven per cent of the orchards have been tilled five or more 
years ; 33 per cent have been in sod five or more years ; the others have 
been tilled part of the time. 

The five-year average yield of orchards that have been tilled ten years 
is 86 per cent larger than that of those which have been in sod ten or 
more years, and those tilled five years gave 34 per cent larger yield than 
those in sod five years. A part of this difference is due to tillage and a 
part is due to the fact that the man who tills his orchard is likely to give 
it improved care in other respects. ' Of the orchards that were well cared 
for in other respects, the ones that have been tilled ten or more years gave 
45 per cent larger yield than those that were in sod ten or more years, 
and those tilled five or more years gave 15 per cent larger yield than those 
in sod the same period. The average prices per bushel have been a little 
larger from tilled than from sod orchards, so that there is a slightly 
greater difference in income per acre than in yields. 

Of the various methods of sod treatment thus far tried, pasturing with 
hogs or sheep gave the largest average yields. 

One-fifth of the sod orchards are as good as the average tilled ones, but 
no method of sod treatment equals tillage in average yield or income. 

Fertilisation. — Many farmers apply all or nearly all the manure from 
the farm in the orchard. Ninety-one per cent of the area is given some 
manure. Commercial fertilizers or wood ashes have been used in 24 per 
cent. The fertilizers used usually contain no nitrogen or are low in 
nitrogen. 

497 



498 Bulletin 229. 

Cover-crops. — Cover-crops have been used in three per cent of the 
area. Common red clover and buckwheat are the most commonly used. 
Crimson clover, rye, vetch, rape and alfalfa are grown by some. 

Pruning. — Poor pruning, resulting in rotten trunks, is the cause of the 
premature death of many trees. The important points in pruning are : 
(1) The limbs should be cut close to the trunk. (2) Large limbs should 
not be removed without cause. (3) Paint should be used on large 
wounds. (4) Pruning should be done every year, rather than give the 
occasional " thorough trimming." 

Spraying. — Sixty-one per cent of the orchards were sprayed in 1904. 
One-fifth of this area was sprayed with arsenic and Bordeaux mixture. 
Nearly all of the remainder were sprayed with Paris green and Bordeaux 
mixture. 

In practically none of the unsprayed orchards were over half of the 
apples free from scab. In 56 per cent of those sprayed once, 82 per cent 
of those sprayed twice, and 97 per cent of those sprayed three times not 
over half the apples were scabby. None of the unsprayed orchards had 
less than 25 per cent of scab, but one-fourth of those sprayed once, two- 
thirds of those sprayed twice, and nine-tenths of those sprayed three 
times had less than this amount. 

The yields, per cent of the crop barreled and the income per acre are 
all much larger from sprayed than from unsprayed orchards. Those 
sprayed three times gave 31 per cent larger yield per acre and 51 per 
cent larger income than those not sprayed. A part of the difference is 
doubtless due to other factors, for the unsprayed orchards are likely to 
be neglected in other ways. Taking only those orchards that have been 
well cared for, the average income per acre is: unsprayed $103; sprayed 
once, $139; sprayed twice, $143; sprayed three times, $184. 

Distance between trees. — The average distance between trees in the 
bearing orchards is 32.4 x 32.4 feet. Only five per cent were planted 
over 35 x 35 feet. In nearly three-fifths of the young orchards the trees 
are 40 x 40 feet. In fifteen per cent of the bearing orchards half of the 
trees should be removed. 

Age of the trees. — Eighty-one per cent of the orchards were planted 
between i860 and 1879. Planting then practically ceased til! 1899, since 
when it has been constantly increasing. The young orchards are largely 
in the north part of the county. They now amount to about eight per 
cent of the total apple orchard area. 



An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 499 

The maximum yield seems to come at 45 to 50 years from the date of 
planting. 

Soils. — The loamy soils seem to be best for apple production, but good 
apples are grown on quite sandy soils. The clay soils are likely to need 
drainage in order to fit them for apple-growing. A loss of about 8 to 10 
per cent of the apple-trees is due to poor drainage. 

Yields. — The average yields per acre have been: 1900, 241 bushels; 
1901, 63 bushels; 1902, 248 bushels; 1903, 224 bushels; 1904, 284 bushels. 
The five-year average yield has been over 200 bushels in half the orchards. 

Markets. — Seventy to 90 per cent of the crop is sold in barrels. Most 
of the remainder is sold to be dried or is sold to vinegar factories. 

Prices. — The average prices per barrel have been: 1900, $1.41; 1901, 
$3.15; 1902, $1.79; 1903, $1.85; 1904, $1.46. The price per bushel for 
those sold to dry has averaged about 11^2 cents during the past five years. 
Those sold to the vinegar factories average about jy 2 cents per bushel. 

Income per acre. — The average gross incomes per acre have been: 
1900, $122; 1901, $58; 1902, $134; 1903, $126; 1904, $116. In half of 
the orchards the income has averaged over $100 per acre for the past 
five years. 



/ J I 



THE APPLE INDUSTRY 



OF 



Wayne and of Orleans Counties, 
New York 



A THESIS 

TBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF CORNELL UNI- 
VERSITY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 



G. F. WARREN 



ITHACA, NEW YORK 
I905 




no 



